they travel by water

30 Beautiful Towns Where the Streets Are Made of Water

Don't mind us, just daydreaming about floating through these cities.

Traveling is all about experiencing new things and seeing unimaginable sights. And we don't know about you, but the idea of using a boat instead of a car to navigate a new city sounds truly unique. All of these cities either float on water (thanks, stilts!) or have extensive canal systems—so you can do all of your sightseeing by boat.

Giethoorn, Holland

If this little town with a population of just over 2,700 looks like it's straight out of a fairytale, that's because it essentially is. The picturesque destination is full of thatched roofs, wood bridges, and charming bed and breakfasts.

Amsterdam, The Netherlands

When you think of canals, it's hard not to picture Amsterdam. The little shops and eateries along the water make this houseboat-friendly city the perfect summer destination.

Suzhou, China

This historic Chinese city in the Jiangsu province is covered in canals, ranging from large ones that serve as the main pathways for locals to narrow ones that lead to residential neighborhoods.

Annecy, France

Many call this town the "Venice of the Alps," because of its extensive waterways and mountain-side location. The canals were purposefully built around the former castle of Lord Annecy, which is why all the canals circle the tower.

Venice, Italy

Perhaps the most famous canal city of all, this popular Italian destination is built on more than 100 small islands in the Adriatic Sea. Anyone who visits Venice should consider a gondola ride past the iconic Bridge of Sighs a must-do.

Venice, California

There's a little slice of Italy right in sunny California thanks to the Venice Canals in Los Angeles. Visitors can walk along the water or bring their own boat to take in the extravagant houses and gorgeous views.

Ganvie, Africa

This west African village of approximately 20,000 people is a city that stands on stilts in the middle of Lake Nokoué. It's located several miles away from the nearest shoreline, so boats are essential here.

Empuriabrava, Spain

With over 15 miles of canals, Empuriabrava is the largest residential marina in Europe. The nearby Aiguamolls de l'Empordà Natural Park and all of the incredible water sport offerings make this city fit for an adventure seeker.

Kurashiki, Japan

This port town has a narrow central canal that's lined with traditional homes and stone bridges—but it's the willow trees along the water's edge that are the real stars.

Bruges, Belgium

A visit to this capital and largest city in the province of West Flanders isn't complete without a boat ride down its famous canals to take in the cobbled streets and medieval buildings.

Bangkok, Thailand

This city is known as the "Venice of the East" thanks to the canals that feed off of the Chao Phraya River. The best way to take in the vibrant culture and history of this Thai town is by boat, of course.

Stockholm, Sweden

The capital of Sweden is made up of more than 14 islands and 50 bridges. The busiest canal is the Djurgårdsbrunnskanalen, which is basically made for tourists, since it'll take you all the way to the Vasa Museum.

Milan, Italy

It doesn't get more romantic than moonlit waters in Milan. The canals are lined with restaurants, artist studios, and shops that ensure you'll never get bored while in town.

Hamburg, Germany

You might be surprised to find out that this German city is known as the City of Bridges, boasting more than 2,500—more than London, Amsterdam, and Venice combined. Many tourists take to the water to float under these famous structures.

Ko Panyi, Thailand

It only makes sense that a fishing village would be built on stilts directly above the water, right? Locals stay afloat financially by serving as a popular tourist lunch stop for people staying in nearby Phuket.

Fort Lauderdale, Florida

This city in the Sunshine State contains more than 300 miles of canals—and, yes, you can take a gondola ride on them. Some lucky residents have these calm waters and picturesque views in their backyard.

Utrecht, The Netherlands

The Oudergracht is a curved canal (also known as the "old canal") that runs through the center of town. While the water used to be lined with warehouses, most have since been converted into restaurants and cafes for visitors.

Birmingham, England

This city's extensive canal system was built during the Industrial Revolution, but today it's mostly used for tourist purposes. Either way, you've got to admire a water system that understands the power of a well-placed roundabout, like this one.

Wuzhen, China

March to May is the best time of year weather-wise to visit this city, which is one of the six famous ancient water towns on the Yangtze River. During this time of year, people say the mist and drizzle of the weather makes the town even more beautiful.

Trogir, Croatia

This Mediterranean island is separated from Coatia's mainland and the island of Ciovo by small canals. Its historic buildings and Venetian architecture are made even better by the bright blue water that surrounds it.

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The Biggest Little Getaways in the World

30 Charming Towns for the Perfect Fall Getaway

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You Can Stay at Martha Stewart's Farmhouse for $11

23 Types of Water Transport To Keep You Afloat

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There are many different types of water transport that form part of the wider transport industry. In this article I will teach you what these different types of water transport are and how they work. Ready to learn more? Read on…

What is water transport?

Runabout boat, pontoon boat, rigid inflatable boat, ship’s tender, cruise ship, personal watercraft, types of water transport- further reading.

Water transport is any form of transportational vehicle which is primarily used to travel by water. There are many different types of water transport, used for both cargo and passengers, which travel on many different waterways. You can find out more about all of the different types below…

One of the main types of water transport is a boat. This is the most likely form of vehicle you would use to travel on water, regardless of whether you’re on a canal or in the middle of the ocean . However, there are of course a lot of different types of boats. We can generally split boats into three categories:

• Unpowered or human-powered boats 
• Sailboats 
• Motorboats 

Each category has many boats within it, all serving different purposes.

These boats, as the name suggests, have a deck area. They are generally small, but have seating areas for groups of people – their main purpose is for leisure and sightseeing, or as a vessel from which to enter the water for swimming or other watersports. With a V-shaped hull, these boats are usually 25-35 feet in length.

A catamaran is a type of boat which has two hulls. They are generally small-ish boats used for fishing or cruising, but this style of boat has been known to be used for car ferries too given their stability. 

As the name suggests, these are boats on which people live. They are not motorised because they are usually moored in one place, floating. Often they are built to look more like a house than a boat, but some definitely retain their boat style. You tend to find them on canals or larger lakes, and many people live in houseboats year round. They are also rented out to tourists looking for something a bit different!

These small open boats are an entry-level kind of vessel, used for casual boating and sporting activities. They have a steering wheel and small control panel.

A lifeboat is a small rigid or inflatable boat, generally attached to a larger boat or ship, used for sea rescue when necessary. Ships legally have to have a certain number of lifeboats corresponding with the number of people on board. 

This type of boat is used mostly on inland waters, and they are incredibly stable due to their wide and flat shape. They rely on tubes known as pontoons to float on the water. With sensible seating, they are used for sightseeing and fishing.

A barge is a type of water transport used on canals – it is also often called a canal boat. They are long and flat-bottomed, and used either for carrying cargo or as recreational passenger boats. The insides can fit beds, kitchens, seating areas and more.

An airboat is a small, flat-bottomed vessel which is powered by an aircraft-style propeller. They are used for tourist and fishing purposes in marshy and shallow waters – particularly the Everglades in Florida .

These are mostly used for tourist purposes now, particularly on the Nile. They are Eastern Mediterranean wooden sailing boats, seating around 10 passengers with 2-3 crew members.

A hovercraft is one of a few types of water transport which can also travel over land, through mud and on ice. They use special blowers in order to produce a large volume of air under the hull which is slightly above atmospheric pressure – this lifts the vessel allowing it to move. They have many uses.

This is a small narrow boat propelled by the use of double-ended paddles. They are most commonly used for recreational purposes on small bodies of water.

A liner is a very large boat designed to transport cargo or passengers long-distance from point A to point B, usually without stopping unless there is a need to refuel. They are generally not used these days, with flying being the optimal choice. The RMS Queen Mary 2 is the only ocean liner still in regular use, often completing trans-Atlantic journeys.

There is no standard definition of a yacht but they are generally 33ft+ in length with overnight facilities, used for pleasure and usually the height of luxury. You tend to find yachts moored at places like Puerto Banus in Marbella, or Cannes in France . People often make an activity out of celebrity-yacht-spotting!

A ferry is a type of boat generally used to carry passengers short-distance from A-B. They are used within waterside cities as public transport, such as the ferries in Venice or the ‘ferry across the Mersey’ in Liverpool. There are also ferries which travel a longer distance, from the UK to France for example, which also hold cars; these tend to have many more amenities on board such as cabins for sleeping, restaurants and bars, small cinemas and more.

This type of boat is small and flat-bottomed with a square-cut bow; it is propelled by the use of a pole which is pushed against the riverbed. The person doing this is called a ‘punter’, and they will be stood on the boat at the back. Punts are used for recreational purposes mostly.

Also known as a RIB, these tiny boats are – as the name suggests – rigid and inflatable. They are lightweight, high-capacity and unsinkable. RIBs are usually used as work boats; however, they are also used by scuba divers to reach dive sites which are in areas where larger boats can’t get to for whatever reason. They travel fast.

This is one of the most useful types of water transport because a ship’s tender is used to transport people or goods from a large ship to a dock, where there is not enough space to dock the ship itself.

A water taxi is used like land public transport to get people from one point to various other points. They will make multiple stops. Water taxis are used for commuting and also by tourists; you’ll find them in cities like Venice, Liverpool, Istanbul, Brussels, New Orleans and Budapest.

Other types of water transport

There are other types of water transport which are not technically boats, or are not referred to as such. This might be because they’re too big for that category, or too small, or simply operate in an entirely different manner.

A ship is a large water vessel, reserved for travelling the oceans. Ships generally have to be 95ft+ long; they can typically stay at sea for much longer than boats and, as the saying goes, a ship could carry a boat but a boat could not carry a ship. All of that being said, there is no set legal definition of a ship versus a boat.

There are many types of ships, including but not limited to:

• High-speed craft
• Off-shore oil vessels
• Motorised fishing trawlers
• Factory ships
• Cable layers
• Cry cargo ships
• Liquid cargo ships
• Passenger carrying vessels
• Special purpose vessels
• Aircraft carriers
• Minesweepers
• Deep sea survey vessels

One of the most well-known and exciting types of water transport is the cruise ship; they are, obviously, classed as ships – they are passenger carrying vessels, designed for staying at sea for an extended period of time. They differ from liners in that they stop at multiple ports as part of a round-trip. On board you’ll find a range of amenities including cabins, restaurants, shops, theatres, cinemas, bars, nightclubs, tattoo shops, water slides, go-karting tracks and much more. Not ever cruise ship has all of these, but this is just an example of how incredible cruise ships can be.

You can read more about cruising in my article, The 8 Major Types of Cruise.

A surfboard is a tricky one to categorise as one of the types of water transport, but it is listed on many websites as being a form of transport despite not generally being used to go from point A to point B in any way. A surfboard is a narrow plank used to allow surfers to ride a wave for fun.

A PWC is also known as a Jet Ski, which is actually a brand name (owned by Kawasaki) which has become synonymous with this kind of vessel. These differ from boats in that you stand or sit ON them, not in them. They are used for recreation mostly. However, law enforcement also use them due to their speed – and PWC fishing is a fast-growing industry.

And the last of the types of water transport is the submarine. These vessels are used for underwater exploration. There are small two-person submarines which can be submerged for a couple of hours, and there are massive submarines which remain under the water for up to 6 months. These vessels can go much deeper than human divers, allowing for discovery and anti-surface warfare.

If you enjoyed this article on the different types of transport then I am sure that you will love these too!

• Cruise tourism explained: What, why and where
• 15 Types of Rail Transport To Take You Away
• 20 Popular Types of Hotels Around The World
• The 3 Major Types Of Airlines + How They Work
• 50 types of transport from around the world

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by Chris Woodford . Last updated: July 23, 2023.

Photo: Sound is energy we hear made by things that vibrate. Photo by William R. Goodwin courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons .

What is sound?

Photo: Sensing with sound: Light doesn't travel well through ocean water: over half the light falling on the sea surface is absorbed within the first meter of water; 100m down and only 1 percent of the surface light remains. That's largely why mighty creatures of the deep rely on sound for communication and navigation. Whales, famously, "talk" to one another across entire ocean basins, while dolphins use sound, like bats, for echolocation. Photo by Bill Thompson courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service .

Robert Boyle's classic experiment

Artwork: Robert Boyle's famous experiment with an alarm clock.

How sound travels

Artwork: Sound waves and ocean waves compared. Top: Sound waves are longitudinal waves: the air moves back and forth along the same line as the wave travels, making alternate patterns of compressions and rarefactions. Bottom: Ocean waves are transverse waves: the water moves back and forth at right angles to the line in which the wave travels.

The science of sound waves

Picture: Reflected sound is extremely useful for "seeing" underwater where light doesn't really travel—that's the basic idea behind sonar. Here's a side-scan sonar (reflected sound) image of a World War II boat wrecked on the seabed. Photo courtesy of U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, US Navy, and Wikimedia Commons .

Whispering galleries and amphitheaters

Photos by Carol M. Highsmith: 1) The Capitol in Washington, DC has a whispering gallery inside its dome. Photo credit: The George F. Landegger Collection of District of Columbia Photographs in Carol M. Highsmith's America, Library of Congress , Prints and Photographs Division. 2) It's easy to hear people talking in the curved memorial amphitheater building at Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia. Photo credit: Photographs in the Carol M. Highsmith Archive, Library of Congress , Prints and Photographs Division.

Measuring waves

Understanding amplitude and frequency, why instruments sound different, the speed of sound.

Photo: Breaking through the sound barrier creates a sonic boom. The mist you can see, which is called a condensation cloud, isn't necessarily caused by an aircraft flying supersonic: it can occur at lower speeds too. It happens because moist air condenses due to the shock waves created by the plane. You might expect the plane to compress the air as it slices through. But the shock waves it generates alternately expand and contract the air, producing both compressions and rarefactions. The rarefactions cause very low pressure and it's these that make moisture in the air condense, producing the cloud you see here. Photo by John Gay courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons .

Why does sound go faster in some things than in others?

Chart: Generally, sound travels faster in solids (right) than in liquids (middle) or gases (left)... but there are exceptions!

How to measure the speed of sound

Sound in practice, if you liked this article..., find out more, on this website.

• Electric guitars
• Speech synthesis
• Synthesizers

On other sites

• Explore Sound : A comprehensive educational site from the Acoustical Society of America, with activities for students of all ages.
• Sound Waves : A great collection of interactive science lessons from the University of Salford, which explains what sound waves are and the different ways in which they behave.

Educational books for younger readers

• Sound (Science in a Flash) by Georgia Amson-Bradshaw. Franklin Watts/Hachette, 2020. Simple facts, experiments, and quizzes fill this book; the visually exciting design will appeal to reluctant readers. Also for ages 7–9.
• Sound by Angela Royston. Raintree, 2017. A basic introduction to sound and musical sounds, including simple activities. Ages 7–9.
• Experimenting with Sound Science Projects by Robert Gardner. Enslow Publishers, 2013. A comprehensive 120-page introduction, running through the science of sound in some detail, with plenty of hands-on projects and activities (including welcome coverage of how to run controlled experiments using the scientific method). Ages 9–12.
• Cool Science: Experiments with Sound and Hearing by Chris Woodford. Gareth Stevens Inc, 2010. One of my own books, this is a short introduction to sound through practical activities, for ages 9–12.
• Adventures in Sound with Max Axiom, Super Scientist by Emily Sohn. Capstone, 2007. The original, graphic novel (comic book) format should appeal to reluctant readers. Ages 8–10.

Popular science

• The Sound Book: The Science of the Sonic Wonders of the World by Trevor Cox. W. W. Norton, 2014. An entertaining tour through everyday sound science.

Academic books

• Master Handbook of Acoustics by F. Alton Everest and Ken Pohlmann. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. A comprehensive reference for undergraduates and sound-design professionals.
• The Science of Sound by Thomas D. Rossing, Paul A. Wheeler, and F. Richard Moore. Pearson, 2013. One of the most popular general undergraduate texts.

Text copyright © Chris Woodford 2009, 2021. All rights reserved. Full copyright notice and terms of use .

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What causes a tsunami? An ocean scientist explains the physics of these destructive waves

Assistant Professor of Climate Science, Brandeis University

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Sally Warner has received funding from the National Science Foundation and the Office of Naval Research.

Brandeis University provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

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On Jan. 15, 2022, the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano in Tonga erupted, sending a tsunami racing across the Pacific Ocean in all directions.

As word of the eruption spread, government agencies on surrounding islands and in places as far away as New Zealand, Japan and even the U.S. West Coast issued tsunami warnings. Only about 12 hours after the initial eruption, tsunami waves a few feet tall hit California shorelines – more than 5,000 miles away from the eruption.

I’m a physical oceanographer who studies waves and turbulent mixing in the ocean. Tsunamis are one of my favorite topics to teach my students because the physics of how they move through oceans is so simple and elegant.

Waves that are a few feet tall hitting a beach in California might not sound like the destructive waves the term calls to mind, nor what you see in footage of tragic tsunamis from the past . But tsunamis are not normal waves, no matter the size. So how are tsunamis different from other ocean waves? What generates them? How do they travel so fast? And why are they so destructive?

Deep displacement

Most waves are generated by wind as it blows over the ocean’s surface, transferring energy to and displacing the water. This process creates the waves you see at the beach every day.

Tsunamis are created by an entirely different mechanism. When an underwater earthquake, volcanic eruption or landslide displaces a large amount of water, that energy has to go somewhere – so it generates a series of waves. Unlike wind-driven waves where the energy is confined to the upper layer of the ocean, the energy in a series of tsunami waves extends throughout the entire depth of the ocean. Additionally, a lot more water is displaced than in a wind-driven wave.

Imagine the difference in the waves that are created if you were to blow on the surface of a swimming pool compared to the waves that are created when someone jumps in with a big cannonball dive. The cannonball dive displaces a lot more water than blowing on the surface, so it creates a much bigger set of waves.

Earthquakes can easily move huge amounts of water and cause dangerous tsunamis. Same with large undersea landslides. In the case of the Tonga tsunami, the massive explosion of the volcano displaced the water. Some scientists are speculating that the eruption also caused an undersea landslide that contributed to the large amount of displaced water. Future research will help confirm whether this is true or not.

Tsunami waves travel fast

No matter the cause of a tsunami, after the water is displaced, waves propagate outward in all directions – similarly to when a stone is thrown into a serene pond.

Because the energy in tsunami waves reaches all the way to the bottom of the ocean, the depth of the sea floor is the primary factor that determines how fast they move. Calculating the speed of a tsunami is actually quite simple. You just multiply the depth of the ocean – 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) on average – by gravity and take the square root. Doing this, you get an average speed of about 440 miles per hour (700 kilometers per hour). This is much faster than the speed of typical waves, which can range from about 10 to 30 mph (15 to 50 kph).

This equation is what oceanographers use to estimate when a tsunami will reach faraway shores. The tsunami on Jan. 15 hit Santa Cruz, California, 12 hours and 12 minutes after the initial eruption in Tonga. Santa Cruz is 5,280 miles (8,528 kilometers) from Tonga, which means that the tsunami traveled at 433 mph (697 kph) – nearly identical to the speed estimate calculated using the ocean’s average depth.

Destruction on land

Tsunamis are rare compared to ubiquitous wind-driven waves, but they are often much more destructive. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami killed 225,000 people. More than 20,000 lost their lives in the 2011 Japan tsunami.

What makes tsunamis so much more destructive than normal waves?

In the open ocean, tsunami waves can be small and may even be undetectable by a boat at the surface. But as the tsunami approaches land, the ocean gets progressively shallower and all the wave energy that extended thousands of feet to the bottom of the deep ocean gets compressed. The displaced water needs to go somewhere. The only place to go is up, so the waves get taller and taller as they approach shore.

When tsunamis get to shore, they often do not crest and break like a typical ocean wave. Instead, they are more like a large wall of water that can inundate land near the coast. It is as if sea level were to suddenly rise by a few feet or more. This can cause flooding and very strong currents that can easily sweep people, cars and buildings away.

[ Get fascinating science, health and technology news. Sign up for The Conversation’s weekly science newsletter .]

Luckily, tsunamis are rare and not nearly as much of a surprise as they once were. There is now an extensive array of bottom pressure sensors, called DART buoys , that can sense a tsunami wave and allow government agencies to send warnings prior to the arrival of the tsunami.

If you live near a coast – especially on the Pacific Ocean where the vast majority of tsunamis occur – be sure to know your tsunami escape route for getting to higher ground, and listen to tsunami warnings if you receive one.

The eruption of the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano severed the main communication cable that connects the people of Tonga to the rest of the world. While the science of tsunamis can be fascinating, these are serious natural disasters. Only a few deaths have been reported so far from Tonga, but many people are missing and the true extent of the damage from the tsunami is still unknown.

• Earthquakes
• Pacific Ocean
• Tsunami warning
• Hunga Tonga

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June 27, 2019

What Do You Hear Underwater?

A submerged science activity from Science Buddies

By Science Buddies & Sabine De Brabandere

Make waves--underwater! Learn how sound travels differently in water than it does in the air. 

George Retseck

Key Concepts Physics Sound Waves Biology

Introduction Have you ever listened to noises underwater? Sound travels differently in the water than it does in the air. To learn more, try making your own underwater noises—and listening carefully. 

Background Sound is a wave created by vibrations. These vibrations create areas of more and less densely packed particles. So sound needs a medium to travel, such as air, water—or even solids. 

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Sound waves travel faster in denser substances because neighboring particles will more easily bump into one another. Take water, for example. There are about 800 times more particles in a bottle of water than there are in the same bottle filled with air. Thus sound waves travel much faster in water than they do in air. In freshwater at room temperature, for example, sound travels about 4.3 times faster than it does in air at the same temperature.

Sound traveling through air soon becomes less loud as you get farther from the source. This is because the waves’ energy quickly gets lost along the way. Sound keeps its energy longer when traveling through water because the particles can carry the sound waves better. In the ocean, for example, the sound of a humpback whale can travel thousands of miles!

Underwater sound waves reaching us at a faster pace and keeping their intensity longer seem like they should make us perceive those sounds as louder when we are also underwater. The human ear, however, evolved to hear sound in the air and is not as useful when submerged in water. Our head itself is full of tissues that contain water and can transmit sound waves when we are underwater. When this happens, the vibrations bypass the eardrum, the part of the ear that evolved to pick up sound waves in the air. 

Sound also interacts with boundaries between two different mediums, such as the surface of water. This boundary between water and air, for example, reflects almost all sounds back into the water. How will all these dynamics influence how we perceive underwater sounds? Try the activity to find out! 

Bathtub or swimming pool (a very large bucket can work, too)

Two stainless steel utensils (for example, spoons or tongs)

Two plastic utensils

Small ball 

Adult helper

An area that can get wet (if not performing the activity at a pool)

Floor cloth to cleanup spills (if not performing the activity at a pool)

Other materials to make underwater sounds (optional)

Access to a swimming pool (optional)

Internet access (optional)

Preparation

Fill the bathtub with lukewarm water—or head to the pool—and bring your helper and other materials.

Ask your helper to click one stainless steel utensil against another. Listen. How would you describe the sound? 

In a moment, your helper will click one utensil against the other underwater . Do you think you will hear the same sound? 

Ask your helper to click one utensil against the other underwater. Listen. Does the sound appear to be louder or softer? Is what you hear different in other ways, too?

Submerge one ear in the water. Ask your helper to click one utensil against the other underwater. Listen. How would you describe this sound? 

Ask your helper to click one utensil against the other underwater soon after you submerge your head. Take a deep breath, close your eyes and submerge your head completely or as much as you feel comfortable doing. Listen while you hold your breath underwater (come up for air when you need to!). Does the sound appear to be louder or softer? Does it appear to be different in other ways? 

Repeat this sequence but have your helper use two plastic utensils banging against each other instead.

Repeat the sequence again, but this time listen to a small ball being dropped into the water. Does the sound of a ball falling into the water change when you listen above or below water? Does your perception of this sound change? Why would this happen? 

Switch roles. Have your helper listen while you make the sounds. 

Discuss the findings you gathered. Do patterns appear? Can you conclude something about how humans perceive sounds when submerged in water? 

Extra : Test with more types of sounds: soft as well as loud sounds, high- as well as low-pitched sounds. Can you find more patterns?

Extra: To investigate what picks up the sound wave when you are submerged, use your fingers to close your ears or use earbuds when submerging your head. How does the sound change when you close off your ear canal underwater? Does the same happen when you close off your ear canal when you are above water? If not, why would this be different? 

Extra: Go to the swimming pool and listen to the sound of someone jumping into the water. Compare your perception of the sound when you are submerged with when your head is above the water. How does your perception change? Close your eyes. Can you tell where the person jumped into the water when submerged? Can you tell when you have your head above the water?

Extra: Research ocean sounds and how sounds caused by human activity impact aquatic animals.  

Observations and Results Was the sound softer when it was created underwater and you listened above the water? Did it sound muffled when you had only your ear submerged? Was it fuller when you had your head submerged? 

Sound travels faster in water compared with air because water particles are packed in more densely. Thus, the energy the sound waves carry is transported faster. This should make the sound appear louder. You probably perceived it as softer when you were not submerged, however, because the water surface is almost like a mirror for the sound you created. The sound most likely almost completely reflected back into the water as soon as it reached the surface. 

When you submerged only your ear, the sound probably still appeared muffled. This happens because the human ear is not good at picking up sound in water—after all, it evolved to pick up sound in air. 

When you submerged your head, the sound probably sounded fuller. That is because our head contains a lot of water, which allows the tissue to pick up underwater sound—without relying on the eardrum. It also explains why closing your ear canal makes almost no difference in the sound you pick up while you are underwater. 

If you tried to detect where the sound came from when submerged, you probably had a hard time. Our brain uses the difference in loudness and timing of the sound detected by each ear as a clue to infer where the sound came from. Because sound travels faster underwater and because you pick up sound with your entire head when you are submerged, your brain loses the cues that normally help you determine where the sound is coming from. 

More to Explore Discovery of Sound in the Sea , from the University of Rhode Island and the Inner Space Center Can You Hear Sounds in Outer Space? , from Science Buddies Talk through a String Telephone , from Scientific American Sound Localization , from Science Buddies  Ears: Do Their Design, Size and Shape Matter? , from Scientific American STEM Activities for Kids , from Science Buddies 

This activity brought to you in partnership with Science Buddies

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The 13 Best Water Bottles of 2024, Tested and Reviewed

Stay hydrated wherever you go with these durable and insulated water bottles.

In This Article

• Our Top Picks

Our Testing Process

• Others We Liked
• Tips for Buying

Frequently Asked Questions

• Why Trust T+L

Travel + Leisure / Janelle Jones

For hiking trips, biking adventures, and commuting to the office, a reusable water bottle is a great way to increase your hydration and cut down on single-use plastics. We tested dozens of popular water bottles to determine the very best based on qualities like durability, portability, and the ability to retain temperatures. 

When picking out a water bottle, it’s important to factor in weight, size, and material so you purchase a container that best fits your needs. To find the best water bottles on the heavily saturated market, we put the most popular and innovative designs through a series of tests in our Lab. After all the jostling, dropping, and critiquing we put them through, the Thermoflask Double Stainless Steel Insulated Water Bottle is our top pick if you’re looking for a bottle that’s easy to carry around, keeps water cold, and has a leak-proof lid. 

Best Overall

Thermoflask stainless steel water bottle.

• Drinkability 5 /5
• Portability 4.5 /5
• Insulation 4 /5
• Durability 4.5 /5

This stainless steel bottle is easy to carry, keeps water cold for hours, and has a reliable, leak-proof lid that was still in pristine condition after being dropped on the floor three times. 

This high-capacity water bottle is bigger and heavier than others we tested.

The Thermoflask Double Stainless Steel Insulated Water Bottle is the ideal water bottle for everyday use. Whether you’re going to the gym or running errands, this vacuum-insulated, stainless steel bottle has a comfortable grip with a convenient handle for carrying, and it fits in a standard-sized vehicle cup holder. No need to worry about backpack spills—we were impressed with the strong seal that prevented leaking, even when we vigorously shook the bottle. Depending on your day-to-day needs, you can switch between two lids that come with the Thermoflask: one straw top and one chug cap that remained leak-proof after being dropped lid-down on the ground three times. We thought the chug cap was comfortable to drink from, and it provided a steady flow of water without any chance of spillage while sipping. The straw lid is ideal for exercising or when you’re otherwise busy, thanks to a tiny air pressure hole that allows you to drink continuously with one hand or hands-free. 

If you want a great travel accessory that provides an ample reserve of chilled water all day long, this is your winner. The Thermoflask’s double-wall insulation did an excellent job of keeping water temperature steady over six hours, only warming 3 degrees in that time — making it perfect to keep in your tennis bag on a sunny day on the court. In addition to being perfectly cold, water from the Thermoflask tasted pure and fresh with absolutely none of the metallic or plastic flavor transfer that can come along with some lesser bottles. While we tested the cobalt blue model, there are four other colors to choose from, including white, black, purple, and light blue. The 40-ounce model is ideal when you need a robust supply of hydration, but the Thermoflask is available in 18- to 64-ounce bottles if you have different capacity needs.

The Details: 40 ounces | BPA-free stainless steel | Chug spout or straw

Travel + Leisure / Conor Ralph

Best Overall, Runner-up

Yeti stainless steel bottle.

• Portability 4 /5
• Durability 5 /5

The chug cap is uniquely pleasant to drink out of, and the water bottle sustained no leaks or scratches after we dropped it three times.

The bottle felt heavy to carry and didn’t fit securely in a standard-sized cup holder.

For a durable water bottle built to withstand a rugged lifestyle, the Yeti Rambler 26-ounce Bottle is a solid choice. We found that the water didn’t absorb any metallic taste, and it felt natural to drink out of the narrow chug cap, which was effective at preventing spilling. Drinking from the bottle is easy because of its comfortable mouthpiece. While it barely fits in a standard car cup holder, the bottle slipped into our backpack’s water bottle pocket nicely. This bottle also regulates temperature effectively; the water only rose 2 degrees after six hours. Although the Yeti Rambler felt slightly bulky and heavy, the flaws will be worth it to those who need a durable container that can provide refreshing gulps hours into an outdoor venture . We dropped the bottle three times, and although it didn’t sustain scratches or leaks, there was some minor denting on its body. Still, we think this is a sturdy choice for comfortable drinking in a variety of settings. 

The Details: 26 ounces | 18/8 Stainless steel | Dishwasher safe | Chug spout

Travel + Leisure / Janelle Jones

Best Insulation

Takeya actives water bottle.

• Insulation 5 /5

This water bottle remained dent- and leak-free after being dropped three times, and the ice water’s temperature even got colder after six hours. 

It’s too tall and wide for a standard-sized cup holder, and a few tiny drops leaked when we carried it around.

If you prefer your water ice-cold, don’t go anywhere without the Takeya Actives Insulated Stainless Steel Water Bottle. It performed the best out of all of the bottles during the temperature testing: The water was actually 5 degrees colder after six hours in the bottle, thanks to melted ice and vacuum insulation. According to Takeya, the bottle will keep hot liquids at the same temperature for 12 hours, and cold liquid frigid for 24 hours. We were also impressed with the lid of the bottle, noting that it’s “just the right size so that you can get as much water as you want without spilling and can get a perfect flow of water from it.” Its 24-ounce capacity means you won't have to buy multiple bottles of water, so it's also a money-saving travel product . Along with the double-walled stainless steel material of the main bottle, the lid is insulated to prevent condensation from building up and lowering the water temperature. When we walked around with the bottle, a few drops did escape, but there was no leaking when we shook it. The size of the bottle was a great fit for a backpack holder, but is too tall to rest securely in a vehicle cup holder. While the bottle might be too big for some car commuters, we think it’s a great everyday companion that will keep your water cold all year long.

The Details: 24 ounces | BPA-free stainless steel | Chug spout

Best Collapsible

Nomader collapsible water bottle.

• Drinkability 4.5 /5
• Portability 5 /5
• Insulation 2 /5
• Durability 4 /5

The silicone bottle rolls into a small pouch and still feels stable to drink from without any plasticky aftertaste.

This bottle is not insulated and won’t keep water cold for long.

Our top pick for the best collapsible water bottle, the Nomader Water Bottle impressed us with its ability to seamlessly roll up into a small pouch and expand into a full-size water bottle that remained leak-proof during heavy shaking. Although the silicone water bottle isn’t insulated, the water tasted normal and didn’t have any plasticky aftertaste. The lid was pleasant to drink from, although the cap does touch your face when you do so. The Nomader felt stable despite being made of squishy silicone; when we dropped the bottle onto its lid, however, the plastic cap cracked a bit. Meanwhile, the body bounced off the floor without leaving any scuffs or damage. Ideal for packing, the Nomader water bottle will keep you hydrated and save space in your bag. 

The Details: 22 ounces | BPA-free silicone | Dishwasher safe | Chug spout

Best with Straw

Brita insulated filtered water bottle.

• Seal 4.5 /5

The lid flips open and clicks shut, providing a durable seal to prevent leaking.

The aluminum base wasn’t as durable as the other bottles we tested.

The Brita Stainless Steel Filter Bottle has a sleek design with eight matte colors to choose from in 20- or 32-ounce sizes. During testing, we loved the pure taste from the internal water-filtering straw. The bottle comes with one filter that will need to be replaced once every two months, per Brita’s instructions. The lid of the cap flips open to reveal a silicone mouthpiece, and while we were skeptical of the texture, it ended up being comfortable to drink from. When we shook the bottle around, not one drop escaped from the mouthpiece, but when we dropped it lid-down, the base dented easily and the seal broke, causing the cap to leak a bit. The bottle fits in a standard backpack and cup holder, and there is a wide handle on the top of the lid that is smooth to hold when you need to carry it. After sitting out for six hours, the ice inside of the bottle melted, and the water temperature decreased by three degrees. The Filter Bottle comes in an array of unique colors, including ruby and jade. If you’re looking for a bottle that will keep your water chilled and filtered, this Brita design is a great option, but we recommend handling it with some care so it won’t dent. 

The Details: 20 and 32 ounces | Stainless steel | Straw

Best Stainless Steel

Hydro flask 24 oz standard mouth bottle.

• Insulation 3.5 /5
• Durability 3.5 /5

The bottle is comfortable to hold with a solid grip, and the wide mouth was pleasant to drink out of.

There were a few dents after dropping the bottle, and the water temperature went up after six hours.

If you’re in search of a no-frills stainless steel water bottle, the Hydro Flask Standard-mouth Flex Cap Bottle is a wise choice. During testing, the bottle performed well and impressed us with a sturdy grip, and the width of the mouth made for a comfortable lip to drink from. We thought the jointed loop handle was easy to hold and allowed the bottle to sway and move around naturally. However, someone with bigger hands might find the loop of the handle to be too small. If that’s the case, the bottle fits perfectly into a backpack water bottle sleeve and a car cup holder. Although the body of the bottle dented when we dropped it, the flaws were only cosmetic, and the functionality remained intact. Over time, the bottle would likely get dented and scratched, but it would stay functional and leak-proof for everyday use. If feel is more important to you than aesthetics, this could be the right bottle for you.

The Details: 18 ounces | 18/8 Pro-grade stainless steel | Dishwasher safe | Canteen lid

Best for Biking

Camelbak podium bike water bottle.

• Drinkability 3 /5

The bottle had a solid grip while being held, and it was unaffected by our durability tests.

The spout needs to be pulled out by hand, and this is not an insulated bottle.

The CamelBak Podium Bike Water Bottle is a lightweight, BPA-free water bottle optimized for cycling. We were impressed with the bottle’s durability, as it had no issues being dropped on the ground several times. It sustained no leaks, cracks, or scratches, which is ideal for mountain or terrain biking where there’s a possibility that your bottle could fall out of a holder at high speeds. The plastic design of the bottle can’t keep water cold, but it has more give to securely fit into a bike’s holder without rattling around like a clunky stainless steel model. When we shook the bottle to test for leaks, it remained secure without any drops coming out of the spout. The spout does require a hand to open, so you may need to stop to drink from it when you’re on a bike. We had to squeeze the bottle to access water, since there is no straw or wide-mouth cap. While this bottle can’t keep water cold for the duration of an extended bike ride, we think its durability and lightweight design make it a reliable piece of gear for your next ride.

The Details: 21 ounces | BPA-free plastic | Chug spout

Best Filtering

Grayl ultrapress filter bottle.

• Insulation 2.5 /5

The non-slip rubber base had a comfortable grip and prevented damage to the plastic body when we dropped it. 

The water temperature increased after six hours.

With a high-grade water filtration system, the Grayl Ultrapress Water Purifier and Filter Bottle is a great asset to have when camping or hiking. The manufacturer claims that the filtration system removes 99.9 percent of viruses, bacteria, and protozoan cysts and filters out dirt and chemicals. We were impressed by the bottle’s durability and comfort while drinking from the vented spout. The hard plastic material is coated with a soft grip cover that was comfortable to hold, and the jointed handle was easy to grasp. Drinking from the spout felt natural, and it closed securely without any leaks occurring during testing. While the price point is higher than most bottles, we think the durability, ease of use, and filtration system are worth it. 

The Details: 16.9 ounces | Polypropylene | Chug spout

Corkcicle Canteen

It's easy to drink from and comes in multiple fun colors and designs.

It dented badly after being dropped.

This chic water bottle is easy to drink from and doesn't leak even when shaken. The bottle isn't too large and has a smooth-but-not-slick exterior that is easy to hold or store in most bags' side pockets. During our insulation tests, this bottle had one of the best performances, keeping water cold even after six hours in our lab (it's advertised with the ability to keep liquids cold for up to 25 hours.) The bottle did, however, dent during our drop test, so it may not be as durable for everyday use as other stainless steel options, but makes for a stylish statement water bottle to bring on low-risk adventures.

The Details: 16 ounces | Stainless steel | Canteen lid

Best Plastic

Yeti yonder water bottle.

• Insulation 3 /5

It's completely leak-proof.

It isn't insulated.

This Yeti bottle is made of 50 percent recycled plastic and BPA-free plastic for a lightweight alternative to heavier stainless steel bottles. The tether cap is easy to use and prevents leaks, even if you toss it into your backpack or carry-on for a full day on the town. It also fits into all standard-sized cupholders and water bottle pockets for easy access. Throughout our tests, the bottle was dropped and thrown around more times than we could count — on grass, tile, and carpet — and it didn't suffer any scratches or scuffs. While this water bottle isn't insulated, the lighter material makes for a sleek option perfect for those who want to minimize bag weight.

The Details: 20, 25, 34, and 50 ounces | Plastic | Dishwasher safe | Canteen lid

Best Filtered

Larq bottle filtered.

It keeps water cold for hours, even in extreme temperatures.

The filters need to be replaced every two months and are $20 each.

To ensure you have access to safe drinking water wherever you go, consider this filtered water bottle by Larq. While the large filter does take up some room in the body of the bottle, it's definitely worth it to make sure you stay hydrated wherever you go. Simply fill your bottle from your nearest water fountain or bathroom faucet and enjoy crisp, clean water every time. During three months of tests, the bottle never leaked, even when brought on planes, trains, buses, and the subway inside bags and clipped to the outside with the built-in carabiner. We even used this bottle in Egypt in the middle of July and it kept the water cold for hours. This is a pricey bottle, but constant access to reliable drinking water (especially when traveling) makes this bottle well-worth the price.

The Details: 17 and 25 ounces | Stainless steel | Straw

Best with Handle

Stanley 40 oz stainless steel h2.0 flowstate quencher tumbler.

It's perfect if you're going on a road trip or driving as it will last you a long time and keep your water pretty cold.

It is not leak proof and water will come out if it turns on its side.

At this point, Stanley Tumblers are synonymous with it-girl-hydration. These large bottles keep water cold for hours, feature a convenient straw, and come in a variety of sizes so you can pick your favorite. Plus, the sturdy and convenient handle is great for travel — whether you're going for a walk or heading to the airport. While the tumbler can get quite heavy, it's the perfect choice for taking to the gym or bringing on your next road trip since it holds plenty of water. We prepared our water with ice before bed and waking up the next day, the water was still cold. The exterior is also shockingly durable and looks brand new even after we've dropped it on the sidewalk several times

The Details: 14, 20, 30, 40 and 64 ounces | Stainless Steel | Dishwasher safe | Straw

Best for Hiking

Wondery fifty states bucket list water bottle.

The stickers are well-designed and a fun motivator to head to new destinations.

Be sure to store your unused stickers in a safe space as replacement stickers cost extra.

This water bottle is such a fun idea, you'll want to buy one for yourself and your favorite hiking buddy. The Wonder Outdoors Bucket List Bottles come in the Fifty States design, The Original Parks of the USA , Euro Trip , and more. Each bottle comes with several sticker sheets, so as you travel to new destinations, you can peel off the sticker and add it to the outside of your bottle. Perfect for new travelers, youngsters, and bucket list adventurers, this bottle is even dish washer safe (although hand washing will help the stickers last longer.)

We love that the bottle comes with a sturdy handle that you can use for holding or as an attachment piece for the outside of your pack. It's also a great size for hiking, at 32-ounces, it provides plenty of water for shorter hikes, but doesn't add too much weight to your set-up.

The Details: 32 ounces | Stainless steel | Dishwasher safe | Straw

We tested dozens of popular water bottles in our New York City lab and in the real world to find out which ones have the best drinkability, durability, portability, insulation, and leak-proof levels.

We first filled up their water bottles one-quarter of the way full of ice, and the remaining space was filled with cold water from a machine. We then measured and recorded the water temperatures. Then, we each took sips from our bottles while standing, walking, and sitting, to evaluate how comfortable each one was to drink from, whether there was any spilling, and how easy or difficult it was to take big gulps. To test the seals, we shook the closed bottles, hold them upside down for one minute, and then place them in a backpack and walk around for five minutes. The bags and bottles were carefully inspected to see whether any drops had escaped.

Our portability tests included having the testers grip each bottle as well as carry it with any included handles to judge the weight and how natural it felt to hold. We placed each water bottle in a standard-size car cup holder and a backpack water bottle pocket to see how convenient it would be to transport them in these common ways. 

Next, we assessed durability by dropping the bottles onto the ground from the height of a table. The bottles were dropped three times so that they landed on their bodies and three times with the lid facing the hard floor. That allowed us to see how easily the bottles got dented or scratched and whether the lids broke and rendered the bottles unusable.

Lastly, we tested the insulation of each bottle by letting them sit in the sun for six hours, taking the temperature again halfway through the wait period and then one final time after the full six hours.

Other Water Bottles We Liked

There were some water bottles that almost made our list, but a few weaknesses during testing meant they didn’t make the cut.

Purist Mover : While we thought the bottle was easy to grip and drink out of, it was easily dented during the durability test and even leaked afterwards. The bottle didn’t perform as well as we had hoped, given its somewhat lofty price. 

Kleen Kanteen Insulated TKWide 32-ounce with Chug Cap : Although this bottle was durable and retained temperature well, there was nothing remarkable about it that stood out in comparison to other insulated bottles we tested. 

Tips for Buying a Water Bottle

Consider the material’s durability and insulation.

The material of a water bottle affects its durability, ability to retain water temperature, and weight. We found that insulated stainless steel bottles were the most effective in keeping the water temperature cold after six hours. While stainless steel is generally durable, you can expect a few cosmetic flaws after prolonged use, like dents or scratches. Although plastic water bottles won’t keep your water cold over time, they are ideal for someone who is looking for a lightweight, travel-friendly bottle—especially the folding bottles that are perfect for saving space. Since glass bottles have the potential to break or shatter, we recommend being mindful of the activities you would use them for. 

Certain types of lids and spouts suit different activities 

There are several common types of lids for water bottles, including straws, screw tops, chug caps, and sports caps. With a straw lid, there will be an external straw spout that flips up on the cap and attaches to the internal straw. A screw-top lid untwists to allow you to drink out of a wide-mouth water bottle and can often come with a handle on it for easy carrying. Ideal for a gym workout or other high-intensity activities, a chug cap has a wider spout designed for quick gulps. Commonly found in plastic water bottles, a sports cap has a plastic or rubber piece that opens and closes to release water when the bottle is tilted or squeezed. 

BPA stands for Bisphenol A , which is a type of chemical that is commonly used in manufacturing plastic materials used for water bottles and other food containers. While the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that the presence of BPA has affected the reproductive systems of laboratory animals, it is unknown what the effects of low BPA exposure are on humans.

A water bottle will generally come with cleaning instructions that will indicate whether it’s dishwasher-safe or not. Not all water bottles are dishwasher-safe, so it’s important to check the manufacturer's instructions before washing the bottle, to avoid ruining its functionality. When a dishwasher isn’t an option, most bottles can be sufficiently cleaned by hand using soap and water. You can also opt for a brush cleaning set to help scrub all the way to the bottom of the bottle as well as the small ridges in and around the lid.

Glass water bottles are usually chemical-free and made from natural materials, but they aren’t always the most practical while traveling due to breakage risk. While often durable, plastic water bottles have the potential to leak bacteria and chemicals into your drinking water. When it comes to clean and safe water bottles that will also withstand long trips, look for those made of durable and toxic-free materials like stainless steel.

Why Trust Travel + Leisure

Anna Popp is a Commerce Writer at Travel + Leisure, where she writes and reviews travel products. She has been travel writing since 2018, and product testing since 2021. Anna worked with travel editors and expert product testers to determine the results for the best water bottles, based on a series of tests completed in our New York Lab.

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Waves in the wrong form can spell trouble for remotely operated vehicle operations. During the 2021 North Atlantic Stepping Stones: New England and Corner Rise Seamounts expedition, 25-knot winds and sustained swells resulted in a cancelled dive. As weather allowed, the team continued with mapping objectives, waiting it out until the next available dive day. Video courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration, 2021 North Atlantic Stepping Stones: New England and Corner Rise Seamounts. Download larger version (mp4, 5.3 MB MB).

Looking out at the ocean, you often see a seemingly infinite series of waves, transporting water from one place to the next. Though waves do cause the surface water to move, the idea that waves are travelling bodies of water is misleading.

Waves are actually energy passing through the water, causing it to move in a circular motion. When a wave encounters a surface object, the object appears to lurch forward and upward with the wave, but then falls down and back in an orbital rotation as the wave continues by, ending up in the same position as before the wave came by. If one imagines water within a wave following this same pattern, it is easier to understand ocean waves as simply the outward manifestation of kinetic energy propagating through seawater. In reality, the water in waves doesn’t travel much at all. The only thing waves do transmit across the sea is energy.

The idea of waves being energy movement rather than water movement makes sense in the open ocean, but what about on the coast, where waves are clearly seen crashing dramatically onto shore? This phenomenon is a result of the wave’s orbital motion being disturbed by the seafloor. As a wave passes through water, not only does the surface water follow an orbital motion, but a column of water below it (down to half of the wave’s wavelength) completes the same movement. The approach of the bottom in shallow areas causes the lower portion of the wave to slow down and compress, forcing the wave’s crest higher in the air. Eventually this imbalance in the wave reaches a breaking point, and the crest comes crashing down as wave energy is dissipated into the surf.

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Understanding Rivers

A river is a large, natural stream of flowing water. Rivers are found on every continent and on nearly every kind of land.

Earth Science, Biology, Ecology, Geography, Physical Geography, Geology

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A river is a large, natural stream of flowing water. Rivers are found on every continent and on nearly every kind of land. Some flow all year round. Others flow seasonally or during wet years. A river may be only kilometers long, or it may span much of a continent. The longest rivers in the world are the Nile in Africa and the Amazon in South America. Both rivers flow through many countries. For centuries, scientists have debated which river is longer. Measuring a river is difficult because it is hard to pinpoint its exact beginning and end. Also, the length of rivers can change as they meander , are dammed , or their deltas grow and recede . The Amazon is estimated to be between 6,259 kilometers (3,903 miles) and 6,800 kilometers (4,225 miles) long. The Nile is estimated to be between 5,499 kilometers (3,437 miles) and 6,690 kilometers (4,180 miles) long. There is no debate, however, that the Amazon carries m ore water than any other river on Earth. Approximately one-fifth of all the fresh water entering the oceans comes from the Amazon. Rivers are important for many reasons. One of the most important things they do is carry large quantities of water from the land to the ocean. There, seawater constantly evaporates . The resulting water vapor forms clouds . Clouds carry moisture over land and release it as precipitation . This freshwater feeds rivers and smaller streams. The movement of water between land, ocean, and air is called the water cycle . The water cycle constantly replenishes Earth’s supply of fresh water, which is essential for almost all living things. Anatomy of a River No two rivers are exactly alike. Yet all rivers have certain features in common and go through similar stages as they age. The beginning of a river is called its source or headwaters . The source may be a melting glacier , such as the Gangotri Glacier, the source of the Ganges River in Asia. The source could be melting snow, such as the snows of the Andes, which feed the Amazon River. A river’s source could be a lake with an outflowing stream, such as Lake Itasca in the U.S. state of Minnesota, the source of the Mississippi River. A spring bubbling out of the ground can also be the headwaters of a river. The source of the Danube River is a spring in the Black Forest of Germany. From its source, a river flows downhill as a small stream. Precipitation and groundwater add to the river’s flow. It is also fed by other streams, called tributaries. For instance, the Amazon River receives water from more than 1,000 tributaries. Together, a river and its tributaries make up a river system . A river system is also called a drainage basin or watershed. A river’s watershed includes the river, all its tributaries, and any groundwater resources in the area. The end of a river is its mouth . Here, the river empties into another body of water—a larger river, a lake, or the ocean. Many of the largest rivers empty into the ocean. The flowing water of a river has great power to carve and shape the landscape. Many landforms, like the Grand Canyon in the U.S. state of Arizona, were sculpted by rivers over time. This process is called weathering or erosion . The energy of flowing river water comes from the force of gravity , which pulls the water downward. The steeper the slope of a river, the faster the river moves and the more energy it has. The movement of water in a river is called a current . The current is usually strongest near the river’s source. Storms can also increase the current. A swift current can move even large boulders . These break apart, and the pieces that are carried in the moving water scrape and dig into the river bottom, or bed. Little by little, a river tears away rocks and soil along its bed, and carries them downstream. The river carves a narrow, V-shaped valley . Rapids and waterfalls are common to rivers, particularly near their sources. Eventually, the river flows to lower land. As the slope of its course flattens, the river cuts less deeply into its bed. Instead, it begins to wind from side to side in looping bends called meanders . This action widens the river valley. At the same time, the river begins to leave behind some of the rocks, sand, and other solid material it collected upstream . This material is called sediment . Once the sediment is deposited, it is called alluvium . Alluvium may contain a great deal of eroded topsoil from upstream and from the banks of its meanders. Because of this, a river deposits very fertile soil on its flood plain . A flood plain is the area next to the river that is subject to flooding. The deepest part of a river bed is called a channel . The channel is usually located in the middle of a river. Here, the current is often strong. In large rivers, ships travel in channels. Engineers may dredge , or dig, deeper channels so more water can flow through the river or the river can transport larger ships. Near the end of its journey, the river slows and may appear to move sluggishly . It has less energy to cut into the land, and it can no longer carry a heavy load of sediment. Where the river meets the ocean or a lake, it may deposit so much sediment that new land, a delta, is formed. Not all rivers have deltas. The Amazon does not have a true delta, for instance. The strength of the tides and currents of the Atlantic Ocean prevent the build-up of sediment. Deltas almost always have fertile soil. The Nile Delta and the Ganges Delta are the chief agricultural areas for Egypt and Bangladesh, for instance. Rivers Through History Rivers have always been important to people. In prehistoric times, people settled along the banks of rivers, where they found fish to eat and water for drinking, cooking, and bathing. Later, people learned that the fertile soil along rivers is good for growing crops . The world’s first great civilizations arose in the fertile flood plains of the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in southern Asia, the Tigris and the Euphrates in the Middle East, and the Huang (Yellow) in China. Centuries later, rivers provided routes for trade , exploration , and settlement . The Volga River in Eastern Europe allowed Scandinavian and Russian cultures, near the source of the river, to trade goods and ideas with Persian cultures, near the mouth of the Volga in southern Europe. The Hudson River in the U.S. state of New York is named after English explorer Henry Hudson , who used the river to explore what was then the New World . When towns and industries developed, the rushing water of rivers supplied power to operate machinery . Hundreds of factories operated mills powered by the Thames in England, the Mississippi in the United States, and the Ruhr in Germany. Rivers remain important today. If you look at a world map, you will see that many well-known cities are on rivers. Great river cities include New York City, New York; Buenos Aires, Argentina; London, England; Cairo, Egypt; Kolkata, India; and Shanghai, China. In fact, rivers are usually the oldest parts of cities. Paris, France, for instance, was named after the Iron Age people known as the Parisii , who lived on the islands and banks of the Seine River, which flows through the city. Rivers continue to provide transportation routes, water for drinking and for irrigating farmland , and power for homes and industries. Rivers of Europe The longest river in Europe is the Volga. It flows approximately 3,685 kilometers (2,290 miles) across Russia and empties into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has been used for centuries to transport timber from northern forests, grain from farms along its valley, and manufactured goods. The river is also known for its sturgeon , a type of large fish whose eggs are used to make a famous delicacy —Russian caviar . The Thames, in England, is one of Europe’s most historic rivers. Along its banks stands the city of London, a bustling urban area for more than a thousand years. By 100 CE, London had already become an important Roman settlement and trading post . Because of its location on the river and near the seacoast, London became England’s principal city and trade center. Europe’s busiest river is the Rhine, which runs from the Alps in Switzerland, through Germany and the Netherlands, and empties into the North Sea. It flows through many industrial and farming regions and carries barges laden with farm products, coal , iron ore, and a variety of manufactured goods. Rivers of Asia Asia’s longest and most important river is the Yangtze, in China. It flows from the Dangla Mountains, between Tibet and China’s Qinghai province. It empties in the East China Sea 6,300 kilometers (3,915 miles) later. The Yangtze is a highway for trade through the world’s most populous country. The Yangtze is also an agricultural river. Its valley is a major rice-growing region, and its water is used to irrigate fields. Many Chinese live on the river in houseboats or sailboats called junks . The Yangtze River is the home of the world’s most powerful hydroelectric power plant, the Three Gorges Dam . Eventually, the plant will be able to constantly produce 22,500 megawatts of power. China’s rural population will have access to affordable electricity for homes, businesses, schools, and hospitals. Creating the Three Gorges Dam was one of the largest engineering feats in history. Engineers dammed the Yangtze, creating a 39.3-cubic-kilometer (31.9 million acre-foot) reservoir , or artificial lake. The Ganges is the greatest river on Asia's Indian subcontinent . It is sacred to the millions of followers of the Hindu religion. For thousands of years, Hindus have worshipped the river as a goddess, Ganga Ma (Mother Ganges). Hindus believe the river’s water purifies the soul and heals the body. Millions of people use the Ganges every day for bathing, drinking, and industry. The historic Tigris and Euphrates river system flows from Turkey through Syria and Iraq and into the Persian Gulf. The rivers lie in an area called the Fertile Crescent . The region between the two rivers, known as Mesopotamia , is the so-called “cradle of civilization.” The earliest evidence of civilization and agriculture —farming and domestication of animals—appears in the Fertile Crescent. Rivers of North America In North America, rivers served as highways for native tribes and, later, for European explorers. French explorers began traveling the St. Lawrence and other rivers of Canada in the 1500s. They found an abundance of fish and other wildlife, and they encountered Native American tribes who hunted beaver. The explorers took beaver pelts back to Europe, where they were used to make fashionable hats. Soon, hunters explored and traveled networks of rivers in North America in search of beaver pelts. The establishment of trading posts along the rivers later opened the way for permanent European settlers. The St. Lawrence River is still a major waterway . The river, which empties into the Atlantic, is linked to the Great Lakes by the St. Lawrence Seaway —a series of canals , locks , dams, and lakes. The St. Lawrence Seaway allows oceangoing ships to enter the interior of the continent. The Mississippi is the chief river of North America. It flows approximately 3,766 kilometers (2,340 miles) through the heart of the United States, from its source in Minnesota to its delta in Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. Spanish and French explorers first traveled the Mississippi in the 1500s and 1600s. In 1803, the United States bought almost the entire Mississippi River Valley from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase . After that, the Mississippi was widely traveled by traders and settlers on rafts, boats, and barges.

With the introduction of the steamboat , a new, industrial, era began on the Mississippi. Paddle wheelers carried trade goods up and down the river. Soon, workboats were joined by cruise ships and other luxurious passenger vessels. Writer Mark Twain , who was once a steamboat pilot on the river, described this era in his book Life on the Mississippi . Over time, the Mississippi increased in importance as a trade route. Today, it carries cargo ships and barges in lines that may extend for more than a kilometer. Large quantities of petroleum , coal, and other bulky goods are conveyed on the river by massive barges pushed by powerful towboats . North America’s Colorado River is famous for forming the Grand Canyon in Arizona. For millions of years, the river has cut its way through layers of rock to carve the canyon. Long ago, the river flowed through a flat plain. Then the Earth’s crust began to rise, lifting the land. The river began cutting into the land. The Grand Canyon is now about one and a half kilometers (one mile) deep at its deepest point, and 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide at its widest. Rivers of South America The strength of the Amazon River in South America dwarfs other rivers on the planet. The amount of water flowing through the Amazon is greater than the amount carried by the Mississippi, the Yangtze, and the Nile combined. The Amazon begins as an icy stream high in the Andes mountains of Peru. It flows through Brazil and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon and its tributaries drain a basin that covers an area equal to three-fourths of the contiguous United States. The first Europeans to see the Amazon were Spanish explorers, who traveled it in the 1500s. They encountered a group of people who all appeared to be women, or so the story goes. The explorers called them Amazons, after female warriors described in Greek mythology . The name Amazon was later given to the river. For much of its course, the Amazon flows through the world’s largest tropical rain forest. The region has abundant and unusual wildlife, including flesh-eating fish called piranhas ; huge fish called pirarucu , which can weigh more than 125 kilograms (275 pounds); and giant snakes called anacondas . Some Amazon tribes remain independent of Western culture. The Tagaeri people, for instance, continue to live a nomadic life based around the Amazon and its tributaries in the rain forest of Ecuador. Because of the demand for timber from the rain forest, the land of the indigenous people of the Amazon is shrinking. Today, there are fewer than 100 Tagaeri living in the rain forest. Rivers provide energy to many South American communities. The Itaipú Dam crosses the Paraná River on the Brazil-Paraguay border. Construction of the dam required the labor of thousands of workers and cost more than $12 billion. The dam’s power plant can regularly produce some 12,600 megawatts of electricity. The huge reservoir formed by the dam supplies water for drinking and for irrigation. Rivers of Africa Africa’s two largest rivers are the Nile and the Congo. One tributary of the Nile, the White Nile , flows from tiny streams in the mountains of Burundi through Lake Victoria, Africa’s largest lake. The other tributary, the Blue Nile , begins in Lake Tana, Ethiopia. The two join at Khartoum, Sudan. The Nile then flows through the Sahara Desert in Sudan and Egypt, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Because the area where the tributaries meet is close to the two sources of the Nile, the area is called the Upper Nile , even though it is farther south geographically. The Lower Nile runs through Egypt. One of the earliest civilizations in the world developed along the Lower Nile. Ancient Egyptian civilization arose about 5,000 years ago. It was directly related to the Nile and its annual flooding. Each year, the river overflowed, spreading rich sediment across its broad flood plain. This made the land extremely fertile. Egyptian farmers were able to grow plentiful crops. In fact, ancient Egyptians called their land Kemet , which means “Black Land,” because of the rich, black soil deposited by the river. Egyptians also used the Nile as a major transportation route to both the Mediterranean and the African interior. The Pschent , or double crown worn by Egyptian monarchs , combined symbolism from both the Upper Nile and Lower Nile. A tall, white crown shaped like a bowling pin represented the lands of the Upper Nile. This crown was combined with a pointy red crown that had a curly wire protruding from the front. The red color symbolized the red soils of Lower Egypt, while the curly wire represented a honeybee . When putting on the Pschent, an Egyptian ruler assumed leadership for the entire Nile. The Nile provided enterprising Egyptians with material to form a powerful civilization. From papyrus , a tall reed that grew in the river, Egyptians made a sort of paper, as well as rope, cloth, and baskets. Egyptians also built great cities, temples, and monuments along the river, including tombs for their monarchs, or pharaohs . Many of these ancient monuments are still standing. The Congo River flows across the middle of Africa, through a huge equatorial rain forest, before emptying in the Atlantic Ocean. The Congo is second only to the Amazon in terms of water flow. It is the deepest river in the world, with measured depths of more than 230 meters (750 feet). Huge urban areas, including the capital cities of Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, and Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, sit on the banks of the river. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the river is the principal highway for transporting goods such as cotton, coffee, and sugar. Boats traveling the river range from dugout canoes to large freighters . The river also supplies an abundance of fish to central Africa. Fishermen use baskets and nets hung from high poles across rushing falls and rapids to catch fish. They also use more traditional nets operated from either onshore or on boats. Rivers of Australia Much of Australia is arid , but rivers still run through it. Australia’s principal rivers are the Murray and the Darling, both in the southeastern part of the continent. The Murray flows some 2,590 kilometers (1,610 miles) from the Snowy Mountains to a lagoon on the Indian Ocean. Near the town of Wentworth, the Murray is joined by the Darling, a 2,739-kilometer (1,702-mile) river that flows from the highlands of the eastern coast. Indigenous Australians placed great importance on the Murray River. The Murray valley had the greatest population density on the continent before the arrival of Europeans in the 1600s. By the mid-1800s, European farmers had settled along both rivers and some of their tributaries. Most Australian farmers raised sheep and cattle. Riverboats began plying the waters, and towns grew up along the banks. Much of Australia’s farmland still lies within the Murray-Darling basin, where river water irrigates some 1.2 million hectares (3 million acres). The region is the chief supplier of the country’s agricultural exports —wool, beef, wheat, and oranges. Polluted Rivers For centuries, people have depended on rivers for many things. Rivers have provided waterways for shipping, convenient construction sites for cities, and fertile land for farming. Such extensive use of rivers has contributed to their pollution . River pollution has come from directly dumping garbage and sewage , disposal of toxic wastes from factories, and agricultural runoff containing fertilizers and pesticides . By the 1960s, many of the world’s rivers were so polluted that fish and other wildlife could no longer survive in them. Their waters became unsafe for drinking, swimming, and other uses. One of the most famous examples of a polluted river was the Cuyahoga. The Cuyahoga is a busy river in the U.S. state of Ohio that empties into Lake Erie. It is a major highway for goods and services from the Midwest to the Great Lakes. In 1969, the oily pollution in the Cuyahoga was so great that the river actually caught fire—something it had done more than a dozen times in the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the 1969 fire, stricter laws have helped clean up polluted rivers. The laws have restricted the substances factories can dump into rivers, limited the amount of agricultural runoff, banned toxic pesticides such as DDT , and required treatment of sewage. Although the situation in some parts of the world has improved, serious problems remain. The Citarum River in Indonesia, for instance, is often cited as the most polluted river in the world. Textile factories near the Citarum dump toxic wastes into the river. The garbage floating on top of the river is so thick that water is invisible. Even after communities have limited river pollution, toxic chemicals may remain. Many pollutants take years to dissolve. The pollutants also build up in the river’s wildlife. Toxic chemicals may cling to algae , which are eaten by insects or fish, which are then eaten by larger fish or people. At each stage of the river’s food web , the amount of the toxic chemical increases. In parts of North America and Europe, there is also the severe problem of acid rain . Acid rain develops when emissions from factories and vehicles mix with moisture in the air. The acid that forms can be toxic for many living things. Acid rain falls as rain and snow. It builds up in glaciers, streams, and lakes, polluting water and killing wildlife. Environmentalists, governments, and communities are trying to understand and solve these pollution problems. To provide safe drinking water and habitats where fish and other wildlife can thrive, rivers must be kept clean. Dams A dam is a barrier that stops or diverts the flow of water along a river. Humans have built dams for thousands of years. Dams are built for many purposes. Some dams prevent flooding or allow people to develop or “reclaim” land previously submerged by a river. Other dams are used to change a river’s course for the benefit of development or agriculture. Still others provide water supplies for nearby rural or urban areas. Many dams are used to provide electricity to local communities. In 1882, the world’s first hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in the U.S. city of Appleton, Wisconsin. Since then, thousands of hydroelectric plants have been built on rivers all over the world. These plants harness the energy of flowing water to produce electricity. About 7 percent of all power in the United States, and 19 percent of power in the world, comes from hydroelectric plants. China is the world’s largest producer of hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric power is renewable because water is constantly replenished through precipitation. Because hydroelectric plants do not burn fossil fuels , they do not emit pollution or greenhouse gases . However, hydroelectric power does have some negative effects on the environment. Dams and hydroelectric plants change the flow and temperature of rivers. These changes to the ecosystem can harm fish and other wildlife that live in or near the river. And although hydroelectric plants do not release greenhouse gases, rotting vegetation trapped in the dams’ reservoirs can produce them. Decaying plant material emits carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Dams also have an effect on people living near the rivers. For example, more than 1.3 million people had to move from their homes to make way for China’s Three Gorges Dam and its reservoir. Human rights organizations claim that many of these people did not receive the compensation they were promised in return for being displaced. In addition, dams can affect fish populations and the fertility of flood plains. Fish may not be able to migrate and spawn. Farmers that depended on the fertile flooding may be cut off from the river by a dam. This can harm the livelihood of fishermen and farmers who live along the river, as well as consumers who must pay higher prices for food. Dams with very large reservoirs may also trigger earthquakes . Earthquakes happen when two or more of the tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust slide against each other. The weight of the water in the reservoirs can cause existing cracks, or faults , in these plates to slip and create an earthquake. River Management River management is the process of balancing the needs of many stakeholders , or communities that depend on rivers. Rivers provide natural habitats for fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also provide recreation areas and sporting opportunities such as fishing and kayaking. Industries also depend on rivers. Rivers transport goods and people across continents. They provide affordable power for millions of homes and businesses. Farmers and agribusinesses often rely on rivers for transportation. Rivers also supply water for irrigation. River managers must consider the needs of all the current and future stakeholders.

Flip-Flopping Flow The Amazon River used to flow in the opposite direction. Today, the river flows from the mountains of Peru in the west to the Atlantic Ocean in the east. But millions of years ago, it actually flowed from east to west, emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The flow flipped when the Andes mountains started growing at the end of the Cretaceous period (around 65 million years ago).

Germ-Killing Ganges Hindus have always believed that the water of the Ganges River has purifying powers. Although millions of people bathe in the river regularly, it does not usually spread cholera, typhoid, or other water-borne diseases. Scientists have found that unique bacteriophages--viruses that destroy bacteria--kill germs in the water of the Ganges. In addition, the Ganges holds up to 25 times more dissolved oxygen than any other river in the world. The oxygen helps prevent putrefaction (rotting) of organic matter in the river. Scientists do not know why the river retains so much oxygen.

Mythical Rivers The ancient Greeks believed that five rivers encircled Hades, the underworld. These rivers are Styx (hate), Phlegethon (fire), Acheron (sorrow), Cocytus (lamentation or sadness), and Lethe (forgetting). The Greeks believed that dead souls had to cross the River Acheron, a branch of the Styx, to reach the underworld. They crossed on a ferry piloted by Charon, the ferryman of Hades.

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A Multi-Phased Journey

The water, or hydrologic, cycle describes the pilgrimage of water as water molecules make their way from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere and back again, in some cases to below the surface. This gigantic system, powered by energy from the Sun, is a continuous exchange of moisture between the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land.

Earth’s water continuously moves through the atmosphere, into and out of the oceans, over the land surface, and underground. ( Image courtesy NOAA National Weather Service Jetstream. )

Studies have revealed that evaporation—the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas—from oceans, seas, and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers, streams) provides nearly 90% of the moisture in our atmosphere. Most of the remaining 10% found in the atmosphere is released by plants through transpiration. Plants take in water through their roots, then release it through small pores on the underside of their leaves. In addition, a very small portion of water vapor enters the atmosphere through sublimation, the process by which water changes directly from a solid (ice or snow) to a gas. The gradual shrinking of snow banks in cases when the temperature remains below freezing results from sublimation.

Together, evaporation, transpiration, and sublimation, plus volcanic emissions, account for almost all the water vapor in the atmosphere that isn’t inserted through human activities. While evaporation from the oceans is the primary vehicle for driving the surface-to-atmosphere portion of the hydrologic cycle, transpiration is also significant. For example, a cornfield 1 acre in size can transpire as much as 4,000 gallons of water every day.

After the water enters the lower atmosphere, rising air currents carry it upward, often high into the atmosphere, where the air is cooler. In the cool air, water vapor is more likely to condense from a gas to a liquid to form cloud droplets. Cloud droplets can grow and produce precipitation (including rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain, and hail), which is the primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere back to the Earth’s surface.

When precipitation falls over the land surface, it follows various routes in its subsequent paths. Some of it evaporates, returning to the atmosphere; some seeps into the ground as soil moisture or groundwater; and some runs off into rivers and streams. Almost all of the water eventually flows into the oceans or other bodies of water, where the cycle continues. At different stages of the cycle, some of the water is intercepted by humans or other life forms for drinking, washing, irrigating, and a large variety of other uses.

Groundwater is found in two broadly defined layers of the soil, the “zone of aeration,” where gaps in the soil are filled with both air and water, and, further down, the “zone of saturation,” where the gaps are completely filled with water. The boundary between these two zones is known as the water table, which rises or falls as the amount of groundwater changes.

The amount of water in the atmosphere at any moment in time is only 12,900 cubic kilometers, a minute fraction of Earth’s total water supply: if it were to completely rain out, atmospheric moisture would cover the Earth’s surface to a depth of only 2.5 centimeters. However, far more water—in fact, some 495,000 cubic kilometers of it—are cycled through the atmosphere every year. It is as if the entire amount of water in the air were removed and replenished nearly 40 times a year.

This map shows the distribution of water vapor throughout the depth of the atmosphere during August 2010. Even the wettest regions would form a layer of water only 60 millimeters deep if it were condensed at the surface. (NASA image by Robert Simmon, using AIRS & AMSU data.)

Water continually evaporates, condenses, and precipitates, and on a global basis, evaporation approximately equals precipitation. Because of this equality, the total amount of water vapor in the atmosphere remains approximately the same over time. However, over the continents, precipitation routinely exceeds evaporation, and conversely, over the oceans, evaporation exceeds precipitation.

In the case of the oceans, the continual excess of evaporation versus precipitation would eventually leave the oceans empty if they were not being replenished by additional means. Not only are they being replenished, largely through runoff from the land areas, but over the past 100 years, they have been over- replenished: sea level around the globe has risen approximately 17 centimeters over the course of the twentieth century.

Sea level has been rising over the past century, partly due to thermal expansion of the ocean as it warms, and partly due to the melting of glaciers and ice caps. (Graph ©2010 Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Research Organization. )

Sea level has risen both because of warming of the oceans, causing water to expand and increase in volume, and because more water has been entering the ocean than the amount leaving it through evaporation or other means. A primary cause for increased mass of water entering the ocean is the calving or melting of land ice (ice sheets and glaciers). Sea ice is already in the ocean, so increases or decreases in the annual amount of sea ice do not significantly affect sea level.

Blackfoot (left) and Jackson (right) glaciers, both in the mountains of Glacier National Park, were joined along their margins in 1914, but have since retreated into separate alpine cirques. The melting of glacial ice is a major contributor to sea level rise. [ Photographs by E. B. Stebinger, Glacier National Park archives (1911), and Lisa McKeon, USGS (2009).]

Throughout the hydrologic cycle, there are many paths that a water molecule might follow. Water at the bottom of Lake Superior may eventually rise into the atmosphere and fall as rain in Massachusetts. Runoff from the Massachusetts rain may drain into the Atlantic Ocean and circulate northeastward toward Iceland, destined to become part of a floe of sea ice, or, after evaporation to the atmosphere and precipitation as snow, part of a glacier.

Water molecules can take an immense variety of routes and branching trails that lead them again and again through the three phases of ice, liquid water, and water vapor. For instance, the water molecules that once fell 100 years ago as rain on your great- grandparents’ farmhouse in Iowa might now be falling as snow on your driveway in California.

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Millions Of Women Take A Long Walk With A 40-Pound Water Can

Vicky Hallett

A woman from the remote Turkana tribe in Northern Kenya carries water from a well. Christopher Furlong/Getty Images hide caption

A woman from the remote Turkana tribe in Northern Kenya carries water from a well.

A few years back, while working in Benin, environmental health specialist Jay Graham saw an elderly woman in line at a pump to get water. She looked far too old to carry the water home herself, so he was relieved to see other people helping her — until he realized they were just making sure she had successfully balanced the 40-pound can on her head.

In parts of the world without running water, people must rely on an alternative: walking [to] water.

It's a physically demanding, time-consuming responsibility and one that almost always falls to females, according to Graham . He and his colleagues from the Milken Institute School of Public Health at the George Washington University have published a new study in PLOS ONE looking at data from 24 sub-Saharan African countries. They found that in all of the countries, in households where a family member had to spend more than 30 minutes to collect water, the primary collectors were women, ranging from 46 percent in Liberia to 90 percent in Cote d'Ivoire. When the chore is a kid's job, there's still a major gender gap: 62 percent for girls versus 38 percent for boys.

The research uncovered that in these countries, there are an estimated 13.54 million women (and 3.36 million children) who are responsible for water collection trips that take 30 minutes or longer.

That so many people, particularly children, shoulder this burden is what distresses Graham. "The scale of the problem really sinks in," he says.

And it highlights the fact that it's not just the quality of water that's at issue. The Millennium Development Goal to boost the population with access to safe drinking water was met in 2012. But focusing on safety wasn't enough, Graham says. "You also can't be spending crazy amounts of time collecting this water," he says.

It all starts with who is doing the job. "That's typically an adult woman, above 15," Graham says. Because of widespread gender inequality, he explains, females are saddled with most of the unpaid chores.

To collect the water, she likely carries a jerry can , a bright yellow plastic container that was originally filled with cooking oil. It's been cleaned out and then repurposed for water storage. If it's full, it holds 5 gallons and weighs about 40 pounds, Graham explains. In many places in sub-Saharan Africa, the woman is probably just holding the can and not using a wheelbarrow or a barrel that could be rolled home.

Click here to subscribe to our weekly global health and development email. NPR hide caption

People ask Graham why more women collecting water don't simply pick one of these less taxing methods. It's because they can't, he explains. "It's usually uneven terrain" with obstacles along the way, he notes.

The path to the water source may change frequently, adds Ben Crow , a sociology professor at the University of California Santa Cruz, who has researched the intricacies of water collection in Kenya. For one study, he placed GPS units on jerry cans to learn where and how far from home women traveled.

Before setting off, a woman must figure out which pump she can visit to actually acquire water on that particular day, Crow says. There are seasonal shortages and rations that may complicate this decision — and lengthen the trip. "In times of scarcity, the journey time can be quite long. They may spend half an hour coming there and another half hour back," he says.

Once a woman gets to a water source, she can expect to spend even more time waiting in line. When there's just a single hand pump, progress is slow. It's common to leave a jerry can to hold your spot, says Graham, who has seen rows of them stretching out for many feet. If the woman lives close enough, she may return home to do domestic chores. If not, she may just hang out.

Then comes the hard part: taking the water home.

Crow picked up a full jerry can once. "I could just about get it on my head," he says. "Could I walk with it? No."

As for Graham, he has lifted a few cans to feel the weight, but that's it. "It's hard work," he says. "If I go backpacking, I can't go very far with 40 pounds." And, he adds, he's a full-grown man who has never gone hungry. Many of the women and girls who regularly carry water are living in poverty.

Long walks with such a heavy load take their toll, notes Jo-Anne Geere , a lecturer at the Norwich Medical School at the University of East Anglia. She has also never hauled a jerry can. As a physiotherapist, she treats neck and back problems, "so I don't fancy creating my own," she says.

In her work examining the health implications of water collection in South Africa, Geere has found that carrying these heavy loads on one's head is associated with a particular pain pattern, with discomfort in the upper back and hands and an increased risk of headaches. (She's still studying why, although she suspects it's because of the compression of discs in the neck.) In one survey she collected data from six villages; 69 percent of participants reported spinal pain, and 38 percent complained of back pain.

It's not necessarily a single trip for water each day that's causing these consequences. Depending on the size of the family and the household's needs — like laundry, for instance — women may make this trip multiple times on the same day. If water is available only during a certain window, "they rush, and can't pace," Geere says.

Even if a woman finishes her water collection duties without aches and pains, there's a good chance she's exhausted, Crow adds. And there are still plenty of other domestic tasks on her to-do list. There usually isn't enough time to finish it all by bedtime, he says, which is why women often sleep less than men . "There is evidence that women may sleep fewer hours than men in response to the time demands of their various tasks," he says.

He notes that reducing the time required for water collection has been found to boost women's economic activity. (One told him that after she had a tap in her home, she was freed up to go to job interviews.)

What Graham hopes people take away from his analysis is that these lengthy water collection times have real impacts on individual lives — typically, the lives of women and girls — and it's important that they're considered when measuring progress in access to safe water.

Geere often thinks about one woman she encountered during her research in South Africa. They met at a spring, and Geere asked if she could accompany her — and three kids, ages 9, 8 and 4 — home. The 20-minute walk "was very steep and slippery," recalls Geere, who was surprised when they were greeted by the woman's husband and a 3-month-old baby. As the woman explained that she was nursing, another two babies appeared.

"This woman had triplets and was trying to fetch water for her whole family," Geere says. "She was managing it, but she said, 'I get incredibly tired.' I said, 'Of course you do.'"

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Science News Explores

Explainer: understanding waves and wavelengths.

Waves transfer energy, not matter, from one place to another

The swells of water in the ocean, the sunlight shining down and the sound of the crashing water ⎯ all are types of waves.

JNEphotos/iStock/Getty Images Plus

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By Jennifer Look

March 5, 2020 at 6:40 am

Waves appear in many different forms. Seismic waves shake the ground during earthquakes. Light waves travel across the universe, allowing us to see distant stars. And every sound we hear is a wave. So what do all these different waves have in common?

A wave is a disturbance that moves energy from one place to another. Only energy —  not matter — is transferred as a wave moves.

The substance that a wave moves through is called the medium . That medium moves back and forth repeatedly, returning to its original position. But the wave travels along the medium. It does not stay in one place.

Imagine holding one end of a piece of rope. If you shake it up and down, you create a wave, with the rope as your medium. When your hand moves up, you create a high point, or crest. As your hand moves down, you create a low point, or trough (TRAWF). The piece of rope touching your hand doesn’t move away from your hand. But the crests and troughs do move away from your hand as the wave travels along the rope. 

The same thing happens in other waves. If you jump in a puddle, your foot pushes on the water in one spot. This starts a small wave. The water that your foot hits moves outward, pushing on the water nearby. This movement creates empty space near your foot, pulling water back inwards. The water oscillates, moving back and forth, creating crests and troughs. The wave then ripples across the puddle. The water that splashes at the edge is a different bit of water than where your foot made contact. The energy from your jump moved across the puddle, but the matter (the molecules of water) only rocked back and forth.

Light, or electromagnetic radiation, also can be described as a wave. The energy of light travels through a medium called an electromagnetic field. This field exists everywhere in the universe. It oscillates when energy disturbs it, just like the rope moves up and down as someone shakes it. Unlike a wave in water or a sound wave in air, light waves don’t need a physical substance to travel through. They can cross empty space because their medium does not involve physical matter. 

Scientists use several properties to measure and describe all these types of waves. Wavelength is the distance from one point on a wave to an identical point on the next, such as from crest to crest or from trough to trough. Waves can come in a wide range of lengths. The wavelength for an ocean wave might be around 120 meters (394 feet). But a typical microwave oven generates waves just 0.12 meter (5 inches) long. Visible light and some other types of electromagnetic radiation have far tinier wavelengths.  

Frequency describes how many waves pass one point during one second. The units for frequency are hertz . Traveling through the air, a music note with a frequency of 261.6 hertz (middle C) pushes air molecules back and forth 261.6 times every second. 

Frequency and wavelength are related to the amount of energy a wave has. For example, when making waves on a rope, it takes more energy to make a higher frequency wave. Moving your hand up and down 10 times per second (10 hertz) requires more energy than moving your hand only once per second (1 hertz). And those 10 hertz waves on the rope have a shorter wavelength than ones at 1 hertz. 

Many researchers rely on the properties and behavior of waves for their work. That includes astronomers, geologists and sound engineers. For example, scientists can use tools that capture reflected sound, light or radio waves to map places or objects. 

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Nasa achieves water recovery milestone on international space station, melissa l. gaskill.

For space missions that venture beyond low Earth orbit, new challenges include how to provide basic needs for crew members without resupply missions from the ground.  NASA is developing life support systems that can regenerate or recycle consumables such as food, air, and water and is testing them on the International Space Station.

Ideally, life support systems need to recover close to 98% of the water that crews bring along at the start of a long journey. The space station’s Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) recently demonstrated that it can achieve that significant goal.

ECLSS is a combination of hardware that includes a Water Recovery System. This system collects wastewater and sends it to the Water Processor Assembly (WPA), which produces drinkable water. One specialized component uses advanced dehumidifiers to capture moisture released into the cabin air from crew breath and sweat.

Another subsystem, the Urine Processor Assembly (UPA), recovers water from urine using vacuum distillation. A previous technology demonstration on the space station tested improvements to the UPA’s Distillation Assembly. Distillation produces water and a urine brine that still contains some reclaimable water. A Brine Processor Assembly (BPA) developed to extract this remaining wastewater has been on the space station as a demonstration of its operation in microgravity. Recent assessments found that the BPA helped the system achieve the 98% water recovery goal.

“This is a very important step forward in the evolution of life support systems,” says Christopher Brown, part of the team at Johnson Space Center that manages the space station’s life support system. “Let’s say you collect 100 pounds of water on the station. You lose two pounds of that and the other 98% just keeps going around and around. Keeping that running is a pretty awesome achievement.”

“Before the BPA, our total water recovery was between 93 and 94% overall,” says Jill Williamson, ECLSS water subsystems manager. “We have now demonstrated that we can reach total water recovery of 98%, thanks to the brine processor.”

The BPA takes the brine produced by the UPA and runs it through a special membrane technology, then blows warm, dry air over the brine to evaporate the water. That process creates humid air, which, just like crew breath and perspiration, is collected by the station’s water collection systems.

All the collected water is treated by the WPA. It first uses a series of specialized filters, then a catalytic reactor that breaks down any trace contaminants that remain. Sensors check the water purity and unacceptable water is reprocessed. The system also adds iodine to the acceptable water to prevent microbial growth and stores it, ready for the crew to use. Each crew member needs about a gallon of water per day for consumption, food preparation, and hygiene such as brushing teeth.

The team acknowledges that the idea of drinking recycled urine might make some people squeamish. But they stress that the end result is far superior to what municipal water systems produce on the ground.

“The processing is fundamentally similar to some terrestrial water distribution systems, just done in microgravity,” Williamson says. “The crew is not drinking urine; they are drinking water that has been reclaimed, filtered, and cleaned such that it is cleaner than what we drink here on Earth. We have a lot of processes in place and a lot of ground testing to provide confidence that we are producing clean, potable water.”

The systems in ECLSS have been carefully tested, not only to ensure that they perform as intended, but also to demonstrate that each is reliable and can operate long-term without a lot of maintenance or spare parts.

“The regenerative ECLSS systems become ever more important as we go beyond low Earth orbit,” Williamson says. “The inability of resupply during exploration means we need to be able to reclaim all the resources the crew needs on these missions. The less water and oxygen we have to ship up, the more science that can be added to the launch vehicle. Reliable, robust regenerative systems mean the crew doesn’t have to worry about it and can focus on the true intent of their mission.”

More information:

Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) Fact Sheet Video: Space Station Live: Environmental Control and LIfe Support System

Melissa Gaskill International Space Station Program Research Office Johnson Space Center

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Sound waves in air and water.

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The molecules of air are much further apart than the molecules in a liquid. A sound wave therefore travels more slowly in the loosely packed air than it does in a much more tightly packed liquid. Sound waves also travel further in liquids and solids than they do in air.

The nature of the medium is a major factor in the speed of a wave. For example, if you make a wave on a string stretched loosely across a classroom, you will see the wave travel down the string. If you tighten the string the wave will move down the string faster. Tightness or stiffness of the string influences the speed.

Note: There is no sound on this video.

Sound – visualising sound waves

Sound is a form of energy that is caused by the vibration of matter. Sound is transmitted through waves, which travel through solids, liquids and gases. We are most used to the sound travelling ...

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Find even more resources on tsunamis  in our searchable resource database.

Tsunamis are just long waves — really long waves. But what is a wave? Sound waves, radio waves, even “the wave” in a stadium all have something in common with the waves that move across oceans. It takes an external force to start a wave, like dropping a rock into a pond or waves blowing across the sea. In the case of tsunamis, the forces involved are large — and their effects can be correspondingly massive.

Expected tsunami wave heights from the March 2011 Honshu, Japan undersea earthquake. (Image credit: NOAA Center for Tsunami Research)

What is a tsunami?

A tsunami is a series of extremely long waves caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean, usually the result of an earthquake below or near the ocean floor. This force creates waves that radiate outward in all directions away from their source, sometimes crossing entire ocean basins. Unlike wind-driven waves, which only travel through the topmost layer of the ocean, tsunamis move through the entire water column, from the ocean floor to the ocean surface.

Imagine this: you are sitting on a beautiful beach enjoying a lovely day, when out of the blue an alarm blasts from your phone and reads “Tsunami warning.” Do you know where you would go and what to do? What if you aren’t in the U.S. and there are no alarms, would you know the signs of an approaching tsunami?

What causes tsunamis?

Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes on converging tectonic plate boundaries . According to the Global Historical Tsunami Database , since 1900, over 80% of likely tsunamis were generated by earthquakes. However, tsunamis can also be caused by landslides, volcanic activity, certain types of weather , and—possibly—near-earth objects (e.g., asteroids, comets) colliding with or exploding above the ocean.

Tsunami movement

Once a tsunami forms, its speed depends on the depth of the ocean. In the deep ocean, a tsunami can move as fast as a jet plane, over 500 mph, and its wavelength , the distance from crest to crest, may be hundreds of miles. Mariners at sea will not normally notice a tsunami as it passes beneath them; in deep water, the top of the wave rarely reaches more than three feet higher than the ocean swell. NOAA Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami (DART) systems, located in the deep ocean, are able to detect small changes in sea-level height and transmit this information to tsunami warning centers.

On the afternoon of April 13, 2018, a large wave of water surged across Lake Michigan and flooded the shores of the picturesque beach town of Ludington, Michigan, damaging homes and boat docks, and flooding intake pipes. Thanks to a local citizen’s photos and other data, NOAA scientists reconstructed the event in models and determined this was the first ever documented meteotsunami in the Great Lakes caused by an atmospheric inertia-gravity wave.

Tsunami safety

A tsunami only becomes hazardous when it approaches land. As a tsunami enters shallow water near coastal shorelines, it slows offsite link to 20 to 30 mph. The wavelength decreases, the height increases, and currents intensify.

Tsunami warnings come in different forms. There are official warnings issued by tsunami warning centers that are broadcast through local radio and television, wireless emergency alerts , NOAA Weather Radios, NOAA websites, and social media. They may also come through outdoor sirens, local officials, text message alerts, and telephone notifications. There may not be time to wait for an official warning, so it is important to be able to recognize natural tsunami warnings. These include strong or long earthquakes, a loud roar (like that of a train or an airplane) coming from the ocean, and a sudden rise or fall of the sea level that is not related to the tide. Official and natural warnings are equally important. Be prepared to respond immediately to any tsunami warnings. Move quickly to a safe place by following posted evacuation signs. If you do not see an evacuation route, go to high ground or as far inland as possible.

When they strike land, most tsunamis are less than 10 feet high, but in extreme cases, they can exceed 100 feet near their source. A tsunami may come onshore like a fast-rising flood or a wall of turbulent water, and a large tsunami can flood low-lying coastal areas more than a mile inland.

Rushing water from waves, floods, and rivers is incredibly powerful. Just six inches of fast-moving water can knock adults off their feet, and twelve inches can carry away a small car. Tsunamis can be particularly destructive because of their speed and volume. They are also dangerous as they return to the sea, carrying debris and people with them. The first wave in a tsunami may not be the last, the largest, or the most damaging. Stay out of the tsunami hazard zone until local officials tell you it is safe, as the danger may last for hours or days.

NOAA bathymetric data helps scientists more accurately model tsunami risk within Barry Arm

Tsunami effects on humans

Large tsunamis are significant threats to human health, property, infrastructure, resources, and economies. Effects can be long-lasting, and felt far beyond the coastline. Tsunamis typically cause the most severe damage and casualties near their source, where there is little time for warning. But large tsunamis can also reach distant shorelines, causing widespread damage. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , for example, impacted 17 countries in Southeastern and Southern Asia and Eastern and Southern Africa.

Tsunami forecasting

Scientists cannot predict when and where the next tsunami will strike. But the tsunami warning centers know which earthquakes are likely to generate tsunamis and can issue messages when one is possible. They monitor networks of deep-ocean and coastal sea-level observation systems designed to detect tsunamis and use information from these networks to forecast coastal impacts and guide local decisions about evacuation. Tsunami warning capabilities have become dramatically better since the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. NOAA scientists are working to further improve warning center operations and to help communities be prepared to respond.

As Tonga’s Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai volcano began to erupt on January 15, 2022, it sent more than tsunami waves across the Pacific Ocean — some forms of communications in the region were sent into the dark, too. The eruption broke an underwater communications cable, leaving most of the island nation without internet access and other forms of communication.

EDUCATION CONNECTION

Students can investigate tsunamis to discover the impacts of Earth's systems on humans. Teachers can use these potentially deadly waves and other natural hazards to bring relevance to science concepts such as plate tectonics, acceleration and speed, force and motion, energy transfer, and the physics of waves . In addition, many schools, homes, and businesses are located in tsunami hazard zones offsite link . Many coastal states and territories have tsunami preparedness campaigns in place. Teaching students about tsunami safety and preparedness plans may ultimately save lives.

5 Best Things About Traveling On Water (& 5 Of The Worst)

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7 Places In The U.S. That Feel Like The Cayman Islands

This underrated state park has the best hiking trail in america, 7 seemingly normal places where people have disappeared.

There are many different ways in which you can travel around the world, but one that seems to divide opinions more often than not is water transportation. Whether you're swimming, on a boat, or just messing around on something fun, it's a method that is both exciting and terrifying all at the same time.

RELATED: Under The Sea: 10 Majestic Shipwrecks You Should See In Person

Today, we're going to take a look at some of the many pros and cons that can be associated with this sort of thing, as well as how we personally feel about it all. But I think we can all agree that a jellyfish sting is the worst experience ever.

10 BEST - Water Sports

Water sports can mean anything from surfing to jet skis and beyond, and it’s something we’ve spoken about quite a bit. If you just want to take some time to yourself and have a bit of fun away from the stress of traveling, then there’s really no better way to do it than by challenging yourself in a new and different format.

Everyone loves a good adrenaline rush, and we all know that’s what this kind of form of entertainment provides people with. It’s silly to some but great to others.

9 WORST - Movie Stereotypes

Films like Jaws and Sharknado are incredibly different in their depiction of how ‘water’ works and how the sea functions, but with Jaws especially, a lot of folks received some lasting damage with that when it came to being a little bit fearful.

Movie stereotypes come and go as we all well know, but they stick with some more so than others, and there’s nothing wrong with that. Unfortunately, the fact of the matter is that there is an awful lot of stuff down there which we just don’t understand or perhaps don’t even know exists.

8 BEST - Peaceful

There’s barely anything to listen to or take on board (pun not intended), and instead, there’s just this sense of serenity that you don’t really get from all too many other forms of travel. You are quite literally away from the majority of human beings that you may know and love and while we’ve said that in a fairly daunting way, the premise behind it isn’t actually all that concerning in our opinion.

RELATED:  10 Coolest Water Parks In The World

Being at peace with yourself and whatever it is you’re doing is now, and will forever be, a powerful emotion.

7 WORST - Nothing But Sea

In the same manner, as the last entry was positive for a similar reason, this one is also a little bit negative. When looking north, it’s just sea. When looking south, it’s just sea. When looking east and west – you kind of get the picture.

This idea that there’s no form of civilization within a certain radius is kind of terrifying, and it’s one of the best functions that come with using air travel as opposed to a boat in order to get around. It sounds a bit pathetic, but it’s the truth.

6 BEST - Glass Bottom Boat

You probably aren’t going to see sharks down there, so we wouldn’t hesitate to say that a glass-bottom boat will be absolutely fine in terms of safety.

One of the great parts about it is that it gives people a better view of the ocean and all of the wonders that lie beneath it. From the colorful fish to just generally seeing how day to day life works for the guys and girls down there, it’s a lot of fun to immerse yourself in this different world. You may never do it again, but even having a go as a one-off can be beneficial.

5 WORST - Storms

It doesn’t just happen in TV shows: storms are a very real threat at all times when out on the water and it’s about time that people start coming to terms with that. So many travelers at sea underestimate the power and function of these storms, to the point where they risk losing their lives more often than not.

RELATED:  The 10 Cities With The Cleanest Water

It’s all about being smart and not stepping over any boundaries because if you do, and orders aren’t followed, it can get a little bit sketchy and that’s the last thing you want.

4 BEST - Fishing

It doesn’t matter what the type of fish is, because fishing is an activity that goes back years upon years – and it never gets old. Whether it be with friends, on your own or perhaps even with some colleagues, there’s no better feeling than getting out there in the open waters and just going for it.

Some are better than others at fishing on a boat, and you could argue there would be no time for this during a travel expedition, but we’d suggest there is always time to stop and smell the roses (or, you know, catch some fish).

3 WORST - The Temperature

There are certain places you could visit where the water, in the shallow depths of the sea, is pretty warm , and that’s fair enough. Predominantly, though, you’ll find yourself in a situation whereby it’s going to be pretty cold most of the time, and that’s a burden we all have to deal with.

Falling or jumping into waters that cold can often send your body into a state of shock and if the person in question isn’t careful, it could lead to a series of lasting repercussions in the long run.

2 BEST - Building Relationships

Having spent time at sea ourselves, we can confirm that it’s one of the best places to build and nurture a relationship. That can be a literal relationship with your partner, or perhaps just a forming of a friendship that you previously didn’t even consider to be a possibility.

RELATED:  The 10 Most Photogenic Water Falls In The United States

The activities that people take part in when out at sea doesn’t really matter in this regard, because it can be whatever you want it to be. Open your mind up to new possibilities, and you may just be surprised by what you discover.

1 WORST - No Escape

It sounds scary and that isn’t our intention here, because we’re trying to take a more comedic approach with this last entry. When we say that there’s no escape, we mean that if you happen to be on a ferry or form of transport with folks you don’t like, it’s not like you can get off at the next step or go and hide away.

The odds are pretty strong that you’ll have to spend a significant amount of time with them, and it will quite literally feel like you’re trapped. Good luck with that!

NEXT: 10 Asian Beaches So Gorgeous They Look Fake

The 8 Best Travel Water Bottles of 2024, Tested and Reviewed

An often overlooked item that can improve your trip

We independently evaluate all recommended products and services. If you click on links we provide, we may receive compensation. Learn more .

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A water bottle is an essential travel item, but finding the best one—in other words, one that doesn't leak and isn't heavy or fragile—can be challenging. We researched the best water bottles on the market and came up with a list of 26 to put to the test in our New York City testing lab. Travel editors tested the bottles for portability, insulation, durability, drinkability, and overall value by filling up the water bottles, dropping them onto the lab's concrete floor, and taking temperature readings. We then averaged scores for each category to give you the best travel water bottles for any trip or situation.

Final Verdict

Other travel water bottles we tested, product selection, how we tested.

• What to Look For

What Trust TripSavvy

Best overall, takeya actives water bottle.

• Drinkability 5 /5
• Portability 4 /5
• Insulation 5 /5
• Durability 5 /5

Actives Spout lid has perfect water flow

Extra lid loop offers another carrying option

Passed the durability test with no damages

Superior insulation

Not completely leakproof

Our testers liked a lot about the Takeya Actives Spout Insulated Stainless Steel Water Bottle, particularly its drinkability, durability, insulation, and overall value. The superb drinkability ratings start with the bottle's Actives Spout lid, which maximizes water flow without the likelihood of spilling it all over your face a la other brands' wide-mouth bottles. "This is really a perfect cap," one tester said of the lid. "Just the right size so that you can get as much water as you want without spilling and can get a perfect flow of water from it."

The bottle held up well in the shake and durability tests but surprisingly had some leaks after walking around with it in a bag. It was also slightly heavier than some of the other bottles we tested. But where this bottle also stood out compared to others was its insulation. Our original temperature reading put the water temperature at about 55 degrees. At three hours, the temperature dropped to 47.5 degrees thanks to the ice in the bottle. And by six hours, the temperature had only risen to about 50 degrees.

Testers also enjoyed some unique features of this bottle, like the removable rubber anti-skid coaster at its base, the hinge-lock, which keeps the cap out of your way while drinking, and its style. "This is a great water bottle for everyday use," a tester concluded. "But because of the smaller cap and ease of drinking while being in motion, plus its durability, I also think it would be good for someone who is very active."

Material: 18/8 food-grade stainless steel | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 18, 22, 24, 32, 40, and 64 ounces

TripSavvy / Conor Ralph

Best Overall, Runner-Up

Thermoflask bottle with chug lid and straw lid.

• Portability 4.5 /5
• Insulation 4 /5
• Durability 4.5 /5

Includes two different lids

Cup holder compatible

Overall excellent value

A few dents from the drop test

The coolest thing about this water bottle? It comes with two lids—a chug lid and a straw lid. Both lids are leakproof—clutch for travel—and both passed the drop tests without cracking. We also liked that it was one of the few water bottles to fit in all cup holders and that it has a carrying handle, though we'd like to see that handle have the ability to fold down.

The vacuum insulation claims to keep liquids cold for up to 24 hours or hot for up to 12. After six hours, the temperature of the ice water we put in the bottle only increased from about 51 degrees to just under 55 degrees. The only real drawback we saw with this bottle was the bottle itself did dent when we dropped it. But the straw didn't open, and no leaks started.

Material: 18/8 food-grade stainless steel | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 24 ounces

Best Budget

Mira water bottle.

• Drinkability 4 /5
• Portability 3.5 /5
• Durability 3.5 /5

Good mouth opening

Testers rated the seal and drinkability highly

Water stayed decently cold

Heavy and no extra features

Didn't hold up well in drop tests

If you lose water bottles frequently, a budget bottle might be a wise choice. Our testers liked MIRA's insulated stainless steel water bottle best of the budget-friendly options we tested. The MIRA bottle has a good grip and a cap that stayed intact during the drop tests, and it's a good carrying size. It also did an excellent job of keeping water cold, only increasing from 54.5 degrees to just over 58 degrees over a span of six hours.

Be careful if you go with the MIRA, as many dents formed during the drop tests. "It's now wobbly and doesn't stand perfectly straight and balanced anymore," one tester noted after the drop tests. Still, if you're looking for a basic bottle that won't hurt to lose, this one is a good value that keeps water cold and is nice to drink from.

Material: 18/8 stainless steel | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 17 and 25 ounces

Brita Insulated Filtered Water Bottle

 Amazon

• Drinkability 4.5 /5
• Seal 4.5 /5
• Portability 5 /5
• Durability 4 /5

Excellent insulation, holding temperature for six hours

Filters water

Good for carrying and holding

Lid potentially annoying for certain face shapes

Not the most durable

If you didn't already know, Brita makes water bottles, too. And it turns out the brand makes pretty good ones. Like the typical Brita counter water filter, the hard-sided water bottle includes a filter that reduces chlorine taste and odor. (Note: It's recommended to replace the filter every two months.) Besides the filter, this bottle has all of the typical features included in a quality reusable water bottle, like stainless steel construction and a leakproof lid.

This bottle has a silicone mouthpiece that our testers liked. "The water tasted great and pure," one tester noted. "The button to open the lid is nice and convenient, as is the handle on top." Our testers had one issue with this bottle: It dented fairly easily, and the seal was compromised when it landed on the lid during the drop tests. But, overall, our testers liked this bottle quite a bit.

Material: Stainless steel | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 20 and 32 ounces

Best for Hiking

Nalgene 32-ounce wide mouth tritan bottle.

• Insulation 2 /5

Inexpensive

Lid loop offers additional carrying options

Very tough to break or dent

Wide mouth makes for easier spilling

There are a few pieces of gear that are absolute game-changers. The 32-ounce Nalgene Water Bottle is one of those products. Nalgene has been around for decades, but we still remember getting our first Nalgene bottle as a teenager in the early 2000s. Nalgene has manufactured this water bottle for over 50 years, fine-tuning its design so that the water bottle is durable enough to survive in any condition or hiking adventure. This lightweight water bottle features BPA-free Tritan material, which can handle both cold and hot drinks. The opening is large enough for ice cubes to fit inside, which also makes it a breeze to wash by hand. You'll be able to track your water intake easily when you're on the go using the measurement markers displayed on the side, and the loop-attached lid guarantees you'll never lose it.

Material: Tritan renew copolyester | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 32 ounces

Best for Portability

Hydro flask standard mouth water bottle.

Hydro Flask

• Insulation 3.5 /5

Carrying loop boosts ease of use

Fits everywhere

Grippy outer material

Not great durability

Temperature holding could be better

Bend, Oregon-based Hydro Flask has elbowed its way into the competitive insulated water bottle market by making high-quality and functional tumblers and bottles. We've always been Nalgene fans because of the brand's lightweight, rugged, and inexpensive bottles. But Hydro Flask has grown on us over the past decade for its functionality. The Standard Mouth Flex Cap bottle has quickly become one of our favorites in the Hydro Flask line.

Our testers also liked the Standard Mouth Flex Cap bottle for many reasons, including its textured finish for boosted grip, its superior seal that didn't allow any leaking, and the actual flex cap, which has a loop that pivots and moves with you as you walk. "The size of the bottle fits perfectly into a backpack holder and fits securely in there without feeling top heavy, so it'll fall out. It also fits well into a car cup holder," a tester reported.

Two downsides dropped the overall scoring of this bottle. The temperature increased almost 8 degrees over six hours (although it stayed remarkably stable for three hours). And it dented easily. "A couple more falls could have likely broken the bottom rim and made the bottle unusable," a tester noted. "The lid and cap, however, stayed intact."

Material: 18/8 pro-grade stainless steel | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 18, 21, and 24 ounces

Best Splurge

Yeti stainless steel bottle.

Narrow mouthpiece helps prevent spills

Holds temperature well

Very strong and durable

A bit heavy

When we see a YETI product, we know two things are likely to be true about it. First, it's going to be expensive. Second, it's going to be excellent quality. The Rambler bottle isn't that much more costly than others on this list. But it is of top-shelf quality, and if you don't tend to lose water bottles, it is definitely worth the higher price.

"A delight to drink from," one tester succinctly described the Rambler. "The mouth opening was a great size, and the water tasted terrific and cold."

The Rambler comes with a chug cap, and if you get a smaller size (it comes in five sizes, up to 64 ounces), it's likely to fit easily into a backpack pocket or car cup holder. The temperature only increased by about 2 degrees over six hours. And, because it's YETI, there were basically no dents or scuffs during the drop tests. Like the Hydro Flask, the YETI Rambler has edged its way into our water bottle rotation with our Nalgene, and we're good with it.

Material: 18/8 kitchen-grade stainless steel | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 18, 26, 36, 46, and 64 ounces

Best Thermos

Healthy human vacuum insulated double walled thermos.

Excellent drinkability

Cap stayed intact during drop tests

Excellent insulation

Sustained some denting

There's a lot to like about the Healthy Human Water Bottle. For one, it was one of our top performers in the temperature test, dropping almost a full degree over six hours. Our testers also enjoyed the size of the lid for drinking as water poured out easily but not too quickly. It was also super comfortable for our testers to hold. Like others on this list, it did dent somewhat easily during the drop tests, but the cap was not damaged and only suffered minor scuffs.

Material: 18/8 stainless steel | BPA-free: Yes | Sizes: 16, 21, 32, and 40 ounces

Our thorough testing revealed the Takeya Actives Insulated Water Bottle to be the best overall. In terms of price, insulation, and durability, this bottle takes the cake. The ThermoFlask 24 Oz. Bottle came in a close second, impressing our testers with its top-notch leak protection and drinkability.

We tested 26 bottles for this roundup. Other bottles we tested not included above in our list were as follows:

CamelBak Eddy+ : We like the size of this bottle and feel it is ideal for active pursuits, but it did not hold up well during our durability or seal tests, and the bite-and-suck straw isn't the most comfortable to use.

CamelBak Podium Bike Water Bottle : This bottle is durable, seals well, and is lightweight. It is also difficult to squeeze to get the water out and would not suit anyone with hand weakness.

Purist Mover Vacuum Water Bottle : The Purist Mover is easy to grip and does not leak while in pristine condition. Our tester deducted points on durability because it began to leak after being dropped twice and noted that anyone with nails would have difficulty opening the thumb slot.

Kleen Kanteen Classic Water Bottle : Our tester found this bottle easy to drink from, and the textured exterior easy to grip. Though it is not expensive, the durability test demonstrated that even a modest drop would make this bottle unusable.

Kleen Kanteen TKWide : We liked drinking from this bottle and didn't have any issues with leaking, but it became uncomfortably heavy when filled, especially considering the handle is made of a sturdy metal without rubber.

S'well Stainless Steel Water Bottle : Our testers liked the shape of this bottle and the fact that it easily fits in a cup holder. It's not as durable as we'd like, and after being dented a few times, it wouldn't stand up straight.

Platypus DuoLock SoftBottle : Malleable yet durable, this soft bottle performed reasonably well and didn't leak. However, after only three hours, the water had reached room temperature, and the cap was somewhat cumbersome when drinking.

Que The Collapsible Bottle : The unique design of the Que bottle played well with our testers. The main drawbacks they found were it had very little insulating capability and that the rubber material tended to pick up dust and hair.

W&P Porter Glass Water Bottle : This pick has a good-sized mouth opening and keeps the water inside tasting pure due to its glass construction. This also means it is more fragile than bottles made of other materials.

Iron Flask Sports Water Bottle : Multiple lids provide a comfortable drinking experience, and the seal was not perfect but solid. We took points away after the drop test, which resulted in several dents and damaged the cap to the point of causing leakage.

E-Senior Collapsible Water Bottle : Easy to stow with a good seal, this bottle survived the durability test beautifully. Unfortunately, we found it awkward to drink from and grip while full.

MoChic Flat Water Bottle : In terms of drinkability, seal, and durability, this is a great option. The main drawback was that its unique shape (kind of a flask/water bottle hybrid) is not easy to fit into standard cup holders or backpacks.

We selected products based on internet research and the expertise of travel writers, editors, and our lab testing team. Internet research included examining what other prominent media sites have featured and highest-rated products on sites like Amazon and REI. Individual expertise came from the experience of TripSavvy's editors and writers and the water bottles we've used over the years.

Once we selected an initial list of products, we narrowed it down to the 26 tested above based on price points, intended uses, features, and styles. We wanted to provide a diverse list of products to fit as many different types of consumers, travelers, and outdoor-focused individuals as possible.

We tested water bottles for drinkability, seal, portability, insulation, durability, and value. Each bottle was rated on a five-point scale for each category. We averaged each score to create an overall score for each bottle.

First, we filled each bottle with ice a quarter of the way. Then we filled the rest with cold water from the water machine in our testing lab. An initial temperature reading was taken. Testers took temperature readings three and six hours after the initial reading. For drinkability, testers took drinks from the bottles while standing still and walking, noting any spills or splashes.

We tested the seal by shaking the bottles, holding them upside down for one minute, tossing them in backpacks, and carrying them around for five minutes. Testers rated portability based on the bottles' grip, carrying handles, and how well they fit in cup holders and backpack carrying pockets.

Drop tests tested durability. Testers dropped the filled bottles three times on the lids and three times on the main body and rated the bottles based on the damage. Lastly, testers rated value based on how the bottles performed across all tests.

What to Look For in a Travel Water Bottle

These days, insulated bottles' standard water material is 18/8 stainless steel. Be on the hunt for that material if you're looking for a quality bottle. Other brands, like Nalgene, feature a proprietary Tritan plastic material. Most importantly, be sure the bottle you pick is BPA-free.

Like the 18/8 stainless steel construction, most quality bottles will claim up to 24 hours of keeping liquids cold. This claim will vary based on many factors, like how cold the liquid is initially when it's placed in the bottle and how warm or cold it is when you use it. Vacuum and double vacuum insulations are the best types of insulation these days, so look for that when purchasing a water bottle if insulation matters to you.

Style of Lid and Cap

While materials and insulations are mostly the same in reusable water bottles, lid and cap styles can vary. Do you prefer a wide-mouth lid? Standard-mouth? Do you like a straw? A smaller lid? Those are all personal preferences to consider when picking a water bottle.

Extra Features

Some water bottles have bonus features like filters, purifiers, or fruit infusers. If that interests you, be on the lookout for those additional items. Just know that with those extra items likely comes increased costs.

This is less of an issue if you're only putting water in your water bottle. You can either hand wash your bottle or throw it in the dishwasher if it's dishwasher-safe. All water bottles come with cleaning instructions. But, if you're like us and put electrolytes or other liquids in your water bottle, cleaning can get a bit more involved. This might require additional scrubbing with warm or hot water and typical dish soap. Pro tip: If mold starts to form, fill your bottle a quarter of the way with ice and add coarse salt. Shake it hard until whatever is growing on the sides of your bottle is removed. We have noticed the traditional Nalgene material is more likely to grow mold than new Nalgene materials and the 18/8 stainless steel.

Another rule is to give your bottle a good scrubbing before using it for the first time.

Any reusable water bottle! The only potential issue is forgetting there's water in it when you go through the security line. Reusable water bottles are excellent for travel as they are better for the planet and help you avoid overpaying for a water bottle after going through the TSA security checkpoint .

We love bottles that have some sort of carrying loop on the lid. It's easier to carry in your hands or attach to a backpack or other luggage with a carabiner. Most carry-on backpacks and other luggage items also have water bottle-specific pockets. If those options don't work, putting the bottle in your carry-on bag will work.

Nathan Allen is TripSavvy's Outdoor Gear Editor. Friends and family have made fun of him for the amount of liquids he keeps on hand. Nathan uses collapsible water bottles daily while trail running, biking water bottles often while cycling or mountain biking, and keeps them nearby for rehydration while working between his many outdoor pursuits. His current rotation of water bottles includes Nalgene's 48-ounce wide-mouth bottle, YETI's Rambler, and Hydro Flask's Standard-Mouth Bottle.

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Why does the ocean have waves?

Waves are created by energy passing through water , causing it to move in a circular motion..

VIDEO: What are waves? Here's what you need to know in less than a minute. Transcript

The ocean is never still. Whether observing from the beach or a boat, we expect to see waves on the horizon. Waves are created by energy passing through water, causing it to move in a circular motion. However, water does not actually travel in waves. Waves transmit energy, not water, across the ocean and if not obstructed by anything, they have the potential to travel across an entire ocean basin.

Waves are most commonly caused by wind. Wind-driven waves , or surface waves , are created by the friction between wind and surface water. As wind blows across the surface of the ocean or a lake, the continual disturbance creates a wave crest. These types of waves are found globally across the open ocean and along the coast. 

More potentially hazardous waves can be caused by severe weather, like a hurricane. The strong winds and pressure from this type of severe storm causes storm surge , a series of long waves that are created far from shore in deeper water and intensify as they move closer to land. Other hazardous waves can be caused by underwater disturbances that displace large amounts of water quickly such as earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions. These very long waves are called  tsunamis . Storm surge and tsunamis are not the types of waves you imagine crashing down on the shore. These waves roll upon the shore like a massive sea level rise and can reach far distances inland.

The gravitational pull of the sun and moon on the earth also causes waves. These waves are tides or, in other words, tidal waves . It is a common misconception that a tidal wave is also a tsunami. The cause of tsunamis are not related to tide information at all but can occur in any tidal state.

Video Transcript

Waves transmit energy, not water, and are commonly caused by the wind as it blows across the ocean, lakes, and rivers. Waves caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun are called tides. The ebb and flow of waves and tides are the life force of our world ocean.

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• Ocean Today: Hurricane Storm Surge (video)
• Ocean Today: Tsunami Awareness (video)

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Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters. Find out more in our Ocean Fact .

Last updated: 01/20/23 Author: NOAA How to cite this article

Bioluminescence

Light and Color in the Deep Sea

What happens to light as it travels down through the depths of the ocean? How does it affect the colors we see?

What is Light

Light is energy traveling at the fastest speed in the universe through what are called light waves. Unlike ocean waves, light waves are electromagnetic energy. Like all electromagnetic energy, they have different wavelengths.

Parts of a wave:

• Crest  – the highest point of a wave
• Trough  – the lowest point of a wave
• Wavelength  – the distance between two waves
• Amplitude  – the height or depth of a wave; 1/2 the length of the vibration path
• Frequency  – the number of waves that pass a fixed point in a period of time

Light Under Ocean Waves

Sunlight contains all of the colors of our visible spectrum— red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet (ROYGBV). When all of these colors are combined together, they appear white as white light. Each visible color has its own wavelength, or distance between two waves. Red light has the longest wavelength in the visible spectrum and violet has the shortest wavelength. Wavelength shortens as you move in sequence from red to violet light across the spectrum.

Wavelength is also related to energy. Colors with shorter wavelengths, like those on the blue and violet end of the spectrum, have more energy than colors with longer wavelengths. Red light has the lowest energy. In water, colors with lower energy, such as reds, oranges, and yellows are filtered out quickly. Because blue and violet light waves have more energy, they travel deeper through water.

Eyes in the Twilight Zone

Very little light from the surface penetrates between 200 and 1,000 meters, in what’s known as the dysphotic or twilight zone. Once we reach about 1,000 meters depth, light from above has disappeared entirely. This sunless realm is known as the aphotic zone.

Light conditions affect how much both humans and organisms see. Some deep- sea organisms’ eyes have evolved to improve their vision in low light. They can be 10 to 100 times more sensitive to light than human eyes. This is one of their amazing adaptations that helps them survive. Meanwhile, some other deep-sea animals have completely lost their ability to see. They rely on other senses, instead.

What Colors Are Found in the Deep?

The wavelength of light that reflects off an object is the color we see. For example, an object we see as red in white light appears that way because it reflects longer, less energetic red light waves. It absorbs the other colors (all of which are present in white light).

Red and orange light waves have less energy, so they are absorbed near the ocean surface. Blue light penetrates much farther, so blue objects are more visible in the deep.

What Color of Animals Do We Find There?

Red and black animals are common in the deep ocean. At this depth, few, if any, red light waves reflect back to one’s eye. Since there is no red light available, red animals here will appear gray or black, making them nearly invisible to other organisms. This helps them evade predators when there is nowhere to hide.

Additional Resources:

Why are so many deep-sea animals red in color? How does depth affect the color of marine animals?    Deep Light

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Pennsylvania couple drown in rip current on florida beach while on vacation with their 6 children.

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A couple from Pennsylvania are dead after drowning while on vacation with their children in Florida.

According to the Martin County Sheriff's Office, 51-year-old Brian Warter and 48-year-old Erica Wishard were on vacation with their six children in the Sunshine state when tragedy struck.

Warter and Wishard were swimming on Hutchinson Island Thursday afternoon when they got caught in a rip current. Officials say the couple and two teens were swept up in the water.

The teenagers were able to break out of the current and tried to help their parents, however officials say it was too dangerous .

The pair were forced to swim to shore while their parents were later found by Martin County Ocean Rescue.

Deputies say rescuers attempted CPR and were taken to a hospital where they would later be pronounced dead.

Martin County Sheriff's Officials say a crisis intervention deputy was on hand to help the mostly teenage children while they wait for family to arrive in Florida.

First, they built an ADU ideal for surfers. Now, they’re ready to travel like nomads

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Anyone who has obsessively scrolled through Zillow and Padmapper looking for rentals in Los Angeles knows how difficult it is to find housing in a city where most are renters .

Add popular amenities like parking, laundry, pet accommodations and private outdoor living space to the search, and housing becomes even more tricky.

“You have to be diligent,” says Ben Larson, a 29-year-old commercial real estate broker for Industry Partners who found everything he was looking for. “I got lucky.”

As is often the case, Larson found the perfect rental for him and his dog, Theo, on Zillow.com. However, it was far from a typical apartment listing: a 500-square-foot accessory dwelling unit, or ADU, in the backyard of architect Cameron McNall’s longtime Mar Vista home.

“This place is such a nice sanctuary for us,” says Larson, who has had Theo since his senior year in college. “It’s so nice and comfortable. It’s perfect for one person.”

They spent $354,000 to build a modern ADU. Now they rent it out for $4,500 a month

L.A. architects making the case for communal living built a tiny ADU above their garage. Design choices make the most of 300 square feet with soaring ceilings and inventive storage.

March 12, 2024

When the opportunity came to transform his garage into a one-bedroom, one-bath ADU in 2021, McNall viewed the addition as more than just a way to supplement his retirement.

“Our motivations for making the ADU certainly include extra income,” confesses McNall, who is in his late 60s and collects Social Security benefits. “But I have real problems with suburban land use, and I don’t think it’s right. I embrace the idea that we can increase the density. Aside from making extra income, I feel better about my footprint on the planet.”

“It feels separate,” Ben Larson says of his backyard rental in Mar Vista.

The ADU features an Ikea kitchen and frosted glass windows for privacy.

Now that McNall and his wife, Margi Reeve, have rented the ADU to two separate tenants over the last two years, they say they have enjoyed the arrangement and “feel safer with another person and dog on the property.” But after three decades in L.A., the couple decided in January to rent their four-bedroom main house, which they purchased for $290,000 in 1993, for $7,000 a month. They plan to become nomads and travel.

“While I enjoy Southern California so much, as I age, we crave European pedestrian city life. We will go for six months and then decide if we want to continue,” says McNall.

Twenty years ago, the architect partly renovated the garage by extending its footprint by 30 inches and reframing it to 11 feet high to use as an office. When it came time to build the ADU, which he now rents to Larson for $3,400 a month, McNall started with “a high-ceiling box.” His head start, he says, meant that the extra work involved in adding plumbing and other items was not as expensive as it would have been if he had started from scratch.

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“It was a very nice studio,” McNall adds. “It had an oversize roll-up garage, and I had as many as eight people working there. More recently, I stopped working there and had smaller jobs. I wasn’t using it the way I used to.”

The resulting ADU, which McNall estimates cost around $250,000, is one big room with a flat ceiling that feels open and intimate despite its small floor plan. McNall is a big fan of using Hardie Board and wrapped the exterior in large blank sheets of the easy-care fiber cement siding. He says the average carpenter or homeowner can work with it efficiently. “It’s a material that looks good, is fire resistant and lasts forever,” he adds.

The simple box has a private entrance just beyond a communal space alongside the main house, painted in statement-making bright yellow horizontal stripes. “I painted the house that color because it pleases me and about 70% of the neighbors,” he says. The area includes an outdoor shower, storage for multiple bikes and surfboards and EV chargers for both the main house and the ADU.

McNall describes the ADU, outdoor spaces and main house as interlocking “like a Chinese puzzle.”

Careful to preserve private outdoor space for tenants, McNall designed an open patio in front of the ADU with enough room for a barbecue and outdoor dining table. There is also room for Larson’s surfboards, some gym equipment and a pair of stadium seats from the Chicago native’s beloved Wrigley Field.

“I’m a homebody, and my place is important to me,” Larson says. “This place is super efficient, and I like hosting my family and friends here and grilling outdoors.” The surfer also likes that he is near El Porto Beach and that he lives in a great walking neighborhood for Theo, whom he walks three times a day.

Goodbye carport, hello ADU: A tiny parking spot is reborn as a stunning live-work studio

A 380-square-foot ADU with plenty of storage offers flexibility for a Los Angeles couple and their extended family, including working from home and housing.

Feb. 20, 2024

Just past the sliding glass doors, the open-concept first floor features polished concrete floors and a full-size kitchen outfitted with Ikea cabinets and custom Caesarstone counters installed by the retailer. “It’s a good choice for renters,” McNall says.

The sofa, bordered by a desk and office chair, separates the dining room and kitchen from the living room. Surfboards are mounted on the wall, and skis and golf clubs are propped in a corner next to the stackable washer and dryer.

Although there are no windows on the property-line side of the ADU, windows and a skylight are strategically placed throughout to bring in light and air. “I like having light at all times of day,” McNall says of his expensive window package, which cost around $20,000. There is also a cozy loft space and an adjunct building behind the main house McNall built to regain some of the storage they lost when they built the ADU.

Regarding parking, McNall chose to widen the driveway so that both houses have off-street parking and all occupants can come and go independently. “Single driveway parking does not work well for two units,” he adds.

McNall also frosted the ADU’s glass so tenants wouldn’t look into the main house and vice versa. “We both have total visual freedom, but there’s never that discomfort of looking at each other,” he says. “There is also a social thing where everyone tries to give everyone space.”

Looking to the future, McNall says he and his wife may consider returning someday to live in the ADU rather than the main house, “particularly if we split our time between Los Angeles and Rome.”

But for now, McNall’s compound in Mar Vista is a home base for two families. Just not his.

More Los Angeles ADUs

How L.A. architects designed a 300-square-foot ADU that pulls in $1,750 a month Three rentals and an ADU? A narrow two-story in Venice makes the case for building up They turned their tiny L.A. garage into an ADU rental for steady income. Here’s how Millennials and Gen Z can’t afford homes. Is this prefab ADU a solution? How a Spanish bungalow in L.A. went from sad to sexy (Hint: There’s an ADU rental) She wanted more than a guesthouse for her sister. This tiny ADU in L.A. delivers Tetris-like ADU packs an office, pool house, music room and gym into a tiny space Tiny hideaway inspired by Richard Neutra has terrarium vibes and a rooftop deck This ADU rental with windows galore is a houseplant lover’s dream How an aging Tudor’s ADU reunited a family and brought them closer together

More to Read

Editorial: L.A. can’t become an affordable, livable city by protecting single-family zoning

June 17, 2024

This California city is letting owners sell ADUs as starter homes. Will it be a housing revolution?

June 14, 2024

New rental developments are changing the American dream of suburban homeownership

June 13, 2024

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Lisa Boone is a features writer for the Los Angeles Times. Since 2003, she has covered home design, gardening, parenting, houseplants, even youth sports. She is a native of Los Angeles.

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'No one came to help us': Only eleven migrants survived boat capsizing in one of Ionian Sea's worst disasters

The boats used by migrants are often unseaworthy and the smugglers they pay are untrustworthy - and so it has proven off the coast of Italy's Calabria region. Of 76 people aboard a sailboat, only 11 have survived.

International correspondent @sparkomat

Wednesday 19 June 2024 02:38, UK

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The waters of the Ionian Sea seem tranquil enough in the middle of June, but they also form part of the most dangerous migration route in the world.

The shoreline of southern Italy , with its position in the central Mediterranean, is the primary objective of many who put to sea.

Yet the boats used by migrants are often unseaworthy and the smugglers they pay are untrustworthy - and so it has proven off the coast of Italy's Calabria region.

Some 120 miles from the port of Roccella Ionica, the Italian coast guard caught site of simple sailboat, a recreational vessel with a single mast barely peaking above the water.

Leaving Turkey eight days earlier, it was packed with 76 people, including more than 70 migrants from Iraq, Iran and Syria.

But something had gone terribly wrong,

Red Cross officials in southern Italy said only 11 people survived, among them a pregnant woman and two children. It was clear these individuals had suffered greatly at sea.

More on Italy

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Mourners gather on the Italian coast after at least 60 people killed when migrant sailboat capsized

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Related Topics:

• Migrant Crisis

"Well, 11 migrants who arrived here have multiple fractures, severe dehydration, severe bruises from what they say," said Concetta Gioffrè of the regional Italian Red Cross.

"They were in shock, with clear signs of burns. I have no words for those who didn't reach the port."

Sky News spoke to one survivor, now being cared for in a local hospital.

Ro'ya Muheidini, a 19-year-old Iraqi Kurd, said that different smugglers had been involved in the voyage - but all the passengers had been duped.

"The smugglers told us not to bring any food because [the vessel] had everything. After that, we ran out and shared what we had. Nothing was left on the boat, no water, no food, nothing."

Ms Muheidini told us that the captain had tried to open a box or tube with provisions but there was an explosion which tore a hole in the hull.

The boat capsized, and all 76 people - including two dozen children - were thrown into the water.

"We stayed on the water for four days and no one came to help us," said the 19-year-old.

"Two or three boats passed by and they got very close. We shouted a lot for help, but they ignored us and passed by.

"If it was not for a French boat, none of us would be here."

Read more on Sky News: French police 'powerless' to stop beach landings People smuggler 'at peace' with dying

Keep up with all the latest news from the UK and around the world by following Sky News

There seems to be little to no prospect that any of those still unaccounted for will be found alive, making this one of the worst disasters in the Ionian Sea in recorded memory.

But that is unlikely to shift public opinion in the European Union. In fact, it may go unnoticed. The politics of immigration and migration have changed in Europe.

It now requires a tougher, harsher approach, but the consequences of that will prove deadly.

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Vacationing parents in family of 8 die after being pulled from water in Martin Co.: MCSO

T wo parents on vacation from Pennsylvania drowned Thursday afternoon after they were caught in a possible rip current in Martin County.

The Martin County Sheriff's Office (MCSO) confirmed Brian Warter and Erica Wishard died after being pulled from the surf at Stuart Beach, behind Hutchinson Island Resort by Marriott, on Northeast Tradewind Lane.

MCSO reported Warter and Wishard, who each were the parents of three children, were part of a family of eight who were vacationing in Florida.

"They are teenagers. They’re not even in their 20s yet. They’ve been through two dramatic scenarios," Chief Deputy John Budensiek said. "They're on the beach and watched them drown. They watched the resuscitation efforts on the beach. They were at the hospital watching some resuscitation efforts, so they’re extremely traumatized.”

Lifeguards were dispatched after the 911 call came in around 1:30 p.m. The nearest stand location was about 400-500 feet away, according to MCFR District Chief Joe Lobosco.

"They try and utilize the four wheelers to get to that location as fast as they can. Obviously, the rescue boards are a huge help as far as expediting, getting out to where the potential victim is," Lobosco said.

Warter and Wishard were unconscious when rescuers got them out of the water, Martin County Fire Rescue (MCFR) previously indicated. Lifeguards performed CPR before they were rushed to Martin North Hospital.

"The children, at least one of their children, called 911. Our dispatcher can hear the child yelling, trying to talk them through swimming parallel, relaxing, letting the rip current take you, as opposed to fighting it. But, unfortunately, they were not strong enough swimmers," Budensiek added.

See Also:  Beach cleaner finds possible cocaine near Florida Keys, days after $1M drug haul

MCFR reported that four people were swimming at the time and the other two were able to make it to safety.

County authorities noted that single red flags were raised Thursday afternoon, warning of rough surf.

Once lifeguards were dispatched from Jensen Beach and Stuart, MCFR protocol is to fly double red flags and closed the water to the public.

“If you happen to not be near a lifeguard stand, we have avenues to get the information out to the public where they can see," Lobosco siad.

World News | World’s oldest shipwreck found in deep water…

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World News | World’s oldest shipwreck found in deep water discovered far off Israel’s coast

The discovery of the late Bronze Age ship so far out at sea indicates that the navigation abilities of ancient seafarers were more advanced than previously thought because they could travel without a line of sight to land, the IAA said.

The great depth at which the ship was found means it has been left undisturbed by waves, currents or fishermen over the millennia, offering greater potential for research, it said.

“The discovery of this boat now changes our entire understanding of ancient mariner abilities. It is the very first to be found at such a great distance with no line of sight to any landmass,” said Jacob Sharvit, head of the IAA marine unit, adding that two similar ships from the same era had been discovered previously, but only close to shore.

Sharvit said the assumption by researchers until now has been that trade during that era was conducted by boats sailing close to the shore, keeping an eye on land while moving from port to port. He said the newly discovered boat’s sailors probably used the sun and the stars to find their way.

The wooden ship sank about 90 kilometers (55 miles) off Israel’s Mediterranean coast and was discovered at a depth of 1,800 meters (1.1 miles) by Energean, a natural gas company which operates a number of deep-sea natural gas fields in Israel’s territorial waters.

In its work, Energean said it uses a submersible robot to scour the sea floor. About a year ago, it came across the 12 to 14-meter-(39-to 45-foot)-long ship buried under the muddy bottom, nestled under hundreds of jugs that were thousands of years old.

The boat and its cargo were fully intact, the IAA said, adding that the vessel appeared to have sunk either in a storm or after coming under attack by pirates.

The ship for now is not being retrieved.

Energean worked with the IAA to retrieve two of the jugs, which were likely used for carrying oil, wine or fruit, and bring them to the surface for research.

The IAA identified the jugs as Canaanite, a people who resided in the lands abutting the eastern Mediterranean.

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Search underway for 2 teens missing in the water of New York City beach

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NEW YORK (AP) — Authorities were searching for two teenagers who went missing in the water at a New York City beach, police said Saturday.

Police received reports of a possible drowning at Jacob Riis Park in Queens at about 6:30 p.m. Friday. Responding officers were told that two boys aged 16 and 17 had been seen struggling in the water before they disappeared, according to the New York Police Department.

The search on Friday night included divers, the city’s fire department and the U.S. Coast Guard. Police said the search continued Saturday.

Witnesses said the teens appeared to have been overtaken by a big wave they tried to handle by jumping up, NYPD Deputy Commissioner of Operations Kaz Daughtry told WCBS-TV at the scene Friday night.

“We think that it may be a riptide, but that’s still under investigation,” Daughtry said.

The teens were not identified.

Spencer Mayor issues curfew Saturday night after major flooding

UPDATE (9:30 P.M.)

SPENCER, Iowa (KTIV) - The mayor of Spencer, Iowa has issued a curfew within the city that starts Saturday, June 22 at 10:30 p.m. and goes until 6 a.m. Sunday, June 23.

According to a press release, rescue by emergency personnel has been stopped so they can focus on urgent resident needs, such as medical emergencies. Spencer officials say law enforcement and fire rescue personnel will be on standby throughout the night.

The opened shelters have food and water available to those staying at those locations only. Shelters have been opened at Faith Pentecostal, SS Collision, John Deere, First Congregational Church, and Iowa Lakes Community College.

“We will have a disbursement center set up soon when supplies can be brought in. Anyone going to the shelter needs to take their personal medications with them in their bottles. Those without medication access should alert shelter staff at check-in for assessment of immediate needs,” said Spencer officials in a press release.

Residents can call the Spencer Emergency Call Center at (712) 264-8407 for non-medical emergency information.

There have been sporadic power outages throughout the rest of the city, without Southwest Spencer reporting a total outage earlier Saturday. Residents should stay home and not attempt to address or approach any downed power lines.

Additionally, the Spencer Waste Water Treatment Facility is without power, with officials urging people to refrain from using their toilet, shower, bathtub, washing machine and dishwasher. Water is still safe to drink, according to officials.

As a safety precaution, Black Hills Energy plans to turn off gas services to customers in Spencer. When that will happen is still being determined. Black Hills Energy says they will continue to monitor the situation and work closely with emergency response officials. The company will provide updates on its website at www.blackhillsenergy.com and on its social media platforms.

PREVIOUS (3 P.M.)

SPENCER, Iowa (KTIV) - Emergency crews have been working through the night and into Saturday afternoon as they have been responding to the flooding in Spencer, Iowa.

Heavy rainfall has led to historic flood levels from the Little Sioux and Ocheyedan Rivers. Because of this, all roads in Spencer have been closed.

City officials say this is an emergency situation and residents should shelter in place if they can.

The city’s sewer plant has been inundated and is inoperable and sewer services are expected to be down for the next 24 to 48 hours. Spencer residents should not flush or use water reserves unless absolutely necessary. Updates on the sewer plant will be released later as more information becomes available.

Sandbags are available at Pedersen Park for anyone who needs them. Shelters have been opened on the south side of town at Faith Pentecostal, SS Collision and John Deere. On the north side, the current shelter is First Congregational Church.

Residents can call the Spencer Emergency Call Center at (712) 264-8407 for non-medical emergent information and staff there will triage non-emergency needs.

Southwest Spencer is without power at this time, and on top of that, there have been sporadic power outages throughout the rest of the city. Residents should stay home and not attempt to address or approach any downed power lines.

PREVIOUS (11 A.M.)

SPENCER, Iowa (KTIV) - The City of Spencer and Veolia have had to shut off power to the Waste Water Treatment Plant. No sewer service for the entire community until further notice.

The City of Spencer, Iowa is urging people to stay away as they battle rising flood waters.

Flood waters are continuing to rise after the area received more rain overnight.

The Clay County Sheriff and Clay County Emergency Management are evacuating some residents in the path of the rising waters.

Residents on the south side of Spencer who need to evacuate their residences can shelter at Faith Pentacostal Church. Residences on the north side can use the Spencer YMCA.

The City of Spencer putting out an urgent message to stay away from the city.

The Little Sioux River runs through the community.

This is a developing story. Stay with KTIV News 4 for the latest.

Copyright 2024 KTIV. All rights reserved.

Rock Valley residents evacuated early Saturday morning, all rescue calls completed by the afternoon

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