growth of specialist tourism

What is special interest tourism and why is it so popular?

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Special interest tourism is growing, and it’s growing fast! Have you heard the term special interest tourism a lot? And do you wonder why people are choosing special interest tourism more than mass-market? Well here, I will explain the meaning of special interest tourism and why it’s becoming more popular.

What is specialist interest tourism?

Characteristics of special interest tourism, the growth of special interest tourism, health tourism , adventure tourism, dark tourism, food tourism, spiritual/ religious tourism, rural tourism, wildlife tourism, sports tourism, special interest tourism- further reading.

Special interest tourism (also known as specialist tourism or SIT), is a branch of niche tourism and alternative tourism . Essentially, special interest tourism is tourism which is tailored to a specific interest.

There are many tour operators who focus their business on special interest tourism (and this number is growing). There are typically smaller companies that specialise in specific types of package holidays; they are seen as package holidaymakers that are perfectly customising holidays with preferred activities or destinations that the customer chooses as they want their needs and preferences to be met.

There are many different types of special interest holidays. An example would be an active family with teenage boys who are looking to travel somewhere like Australia to take part in adventurous activities like bungee jumping, mountain biking, or zip-lining. Another example would be a couple who are looking to travel for their honeymoon to an exotic romantic destination, like the Maldives .

Many people would describe special interest tourism as the law of changing nature, meaning people are changing normal everyday items for better-improved items. In other words, people are moving away from the traditional mass tourism model and towards more niche, specialist products that better satisfy their individual desires, interests and needs. This happens in many different ways, from the tourists visiting different destinations, for example by swapping a trip to the beaches in Spain for an adventure across Jordan or by switching their day by the pool for a specialist painting holiday.

Special interest tourism is seen as both tangible (something you can touch, like a hat) and intangible (something you can’t touch, like air); even though when customers are booking their holidays they can’t physically touch their holidays and see what it feels like, however, when they hop on the plane and go to their resort, or when they go to the pools or when they go to the beach, etc – all of those things they can touch, and they can even take stuff with them for memories.

There are many reasons for the rapid growth of special interest tourism, the first one being, socioeconomic. The customer’s level of income will dictate the choice of their holiday and the level of service that is wanted. Nowadays there are more people who have more money to spend on their holidays, which increases all tourism, not just special interest tourism!

However, it is the change in consumer attitudes that has really influenced the growth of the special interest tourism market. Many more people nowadays want to experience bungee jumping, line walking, mountain biking, and more fun activities; they want to do something crazy and different from their normal life and mainly to get their mind off their workplace. People want to pursue their hobbies in alternative contexts and to experience culture in a way that they have not previously done.

All of this creates this demand and thus the rise of special interest tourism as more people are now interested in doing something different. This is especially the case since COVID-19, when people developed a true appreciation for the opportunities that are presented to them outside of the confines of their homes.

Another reason for the growth of special interest tourism is due to trends – trends are always changing, which means that special interest tourism has to be updated and developed to follow these trends for their customers. An example of a trend would be the development of technology; which has a high impact as everyone has access to the internet, which leads to everyone having and being on social media and the growth of tourism forms such as Insta tourism , smart tourism and virtual tourism !

Furthermore, social media platforms are used globally with billions of people using them; people can post pictures of themselves, families, places, and their hobbies, and they can comment on our people’s posts (where they are following each other), this has led to people changing and wanting more things; which is caused by some social media influencers (who have a lot of followers who will look up to them); they are paid employees who are working on social media to post pictures and inspire people to try what they are doing; which is good for the companies like travel – because there is a demand and an increase in destinations as these influencers will go to certain places and they will post these amazing catching pictures that will lead to people wanting to travel in that destination).

Examples of special interest tourism

There are over 150 types of tourism that tour operators specialise in. Some of the main types of special interest tourism include: 

Health tourism allows customers to go to a destination with a purpose for things like medical treatments, visiting spas, wellnesses, and physical activities (yoga, swimming, fitness) – to ‘clear’ and focus on their mindset and body; most of the destinations seem like relaxing and calm place to go, however, some destinations may be seen as expensive, exotic place to travel (meaning most of the destinations are long haul flights), popular destinations include Asia, Middle East, Indian Ocean and many more.

Adventure Tourism is seen as a fantastic and energetic place with adventure activities, like mountain hikes, snorkeling, skiing, bungee jumping, zip-lining, etc. The holidaymakers will go to places with the most fun things that the customers can do and experience (and can tick off on their bucket list), which includes destinations like Australia , Africa, Thailand, and many more.

Dark touris ts will travel to destinations where certain (bad) things have happened. Dark tourism generally means that tourists will visit places where a high amount of death has occurred; some people go to these places to remember their loved ones who were involved and to honour them (to pay their respect) and others go there to learn more about what has happened and see the experience. They can visit places like battlefields, prisons, castles, Chernobyl, Auschwitz, and the 9/11 memorial site.

Food tourism  allows tourists to go aboard and do things that involve doing food & beverage testings; to get the authentic experience of trying new things. Some people go to another destination to learn how to cook the country’s famous dishes from the locals and others go aboard just to try the dishes around the world, which includes going to the destinations like: France, Italy , Korea, Middle East, USA, and more (some people will have a sit-down meal, some will try street food, some will share meals with the local people, some will go to the food festivals, some will visit the local food market, etc)

Spiritual/ religious tourists can go abroad and connect with the world (meaning with god and with religions) and even with themselves; meaning spiritual tourism is not always connecting with specific religions, it means that people can also be connecting their bodies, mind, and soul; while religious tourism is to seek blessings from God based on the religious faiths and beliefs; some destinations include: the Middle East, Spain, India, United Kingdom and more – most of the tourists will visit pilgrims, churches, sacred sites, and other will visit places where there are quiet and calm areas; somewhere like at the top of the cliff, Greenland (somewhere with a lot of grass area).

Rural tourists can travel somewhere in the country-side; meaning the tourists can experience the country life, the culture, the beliefs, and religion, and take part in the activities that take place in the country life like farming, hand-picking vegetables, riding tractors to crop the soils, etc; it means that the tourist will not stay in expensive hotels, tourists will likely be spending their nights in a small house that is located in the village with local tourists around, or they will likely be sleeping in tents and camps, the destinations include Poland, Middle East, Philippines and more.

Wildlife tourists can travel abroad to see and interact with animals that they don’t see on the daily basis, it includes visiting places like the zoo, safari, animal shows (although this is very controversial and I do not recommend it). Wildlife tourism destinations include Africa, India , Sri Lanka, Spain, and more.

Sports tourism occurs when tourists travel aboard to watch or take part in sports or sports events. Sporting events include things like the Olympics, Formula One, etc. Sporting activities may include playing football, golf, volleyball, taking part in car races, etc. Popular sport tourism destinations include Germany, Italy, Middle East, Spain, Belgium and more.

If you have enjoyed this article on special interest tourism, I am sure that you will love these too!

• What is adventure tourism and why is it so big?
• What is alternative tourism and why is it growing so fast?
• The fascinating history of tourism
• What is industrial tourism and why is it so popular?

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Special Interest Tourism Market

Special Interest Tourism Market Forecast by Environmental and Adventure for 2024 to 2034

Special Interest Tourism is Skyrocketing as Remote Work Revolutionizes Travel Preferences. Market Outlook Available for 35+ Countries

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Special Interest Tourism Market Outlook from 2024 to 2034

The special interest tourism market is estimated to stand at US$ 4,781.14 billion in 2024. The market is forecasted to exceed a valuation of US$ 18,843.69 billion by 2034. The market is projected to experience impressive growth through 2034, recording a CAGR of 14.70%. Special interest tourism demand is primarily driven by the growing trend toward experiential travel, where people seek authentic experiences.

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Special Interest Tourism Market Overview

• Governments of different countries are recognizing the potential of tourism sector. They are implementing policies and initiatives to promote tourism developments. Consequently, there is likely to be around a 4X surge in the sales of Special Interest Tourism by 2034.
• China and India are set to offer intense competition in the market as both these countries have massive domestic tourism markets. Moreover, these countries have been investing heavily in tourism infrastructure, including transportation, accommodation, and attractions.
• Travel firms need to recognize the demands and preferences of special interest tourists and be innovative to stay ahead of the competition. Special interest travelers are searching for one-of-a-kind experiences that they cannot find anywhere else.

Key Factors Influencing the Global Special Interest Tourism Market Growth

• Growing awareness and interest in sustainable and responsible travel practices is encouraging travelers to seek out authentic and meaningful experiences.
• Influence of social media and digital platforms, which showcase unique destinations and experiences, inspiring travelers to explore new interests and activities.
• Changing demographics, with millennials and Gen Z prioritizing experiences over material possessions, is fueling demand for niche and special interest tourism.
• There is a shift toward personalized tourism services and unique travel experiences. Special interest tourism allows tourists to tailor their itineraries to suit their interests and preferences.
• The remote work trend has played a crucial role in driving the popularity of special interest tourism. With the ability to work from anywhere, individuals are no longer constrained by traditional vacation schedules.

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Historical Market Study on Special Interest Tourism alongside Future Projections

From 2019 to 2023, the special interest tourism market showed promising growth, boasting a 12.50% CAGR. During this period, especially since COVID-19, individuals started valuing going out more. They have realized there is a lot to discover beyond their homes. This offered a big opportunity for tour companies to proliferate in this space.

Because of this, tour companies have the opportunity to jump into the special interest tourism trend. They can offer unique services for different interests. This trend has contributed to the positive outlook of the special interest tourism industry.

The internet and social media help groups with similar interests plan trips together now. Several travel companies offer solo travelers the opportunity to travel in their preferred locations. These are likely to drive market growth and offer opportunities to market players. Moreover, technology makes it easier to reach remote places and try new activities.

Top Opportunities for Special Interest Tourism Market Players

• With the growing interest in wellness, market players have the opportunity to offer travel packages that include wellness retreats, spa experiences, and yoga retreats.
• Opportunities exist for cultural tourism niche, where travelers can explore ancestral roots and heritage sites to learn about family history and heritage origins.
• Market players can tap into agro-tourism by offering farm stays, vineyard tours, and agricultural experiences.

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Special Interest Tourism Market Trends

• Travelers prefer destinations and experiences that prioritize environmental conservation and community engagement.
• Another evolving trend in the special interest tourism market is the growing inclination toward dark tourism . People nowadays prefer to visit war sites and places in which historical tragedies took place.
• Food and beverage experiences are increasingly becoming central to travel itineraries, with tourists searching destinations renowned for cuisines.

Comparative Analysis of the Adjacent Special Interest Tourism Global Market

The special interest tourism market stands in contrast to its counterparts, including the event tourism market and the sustainable tourism market . In contrast to the study carried out on other two related markets, it becomes evident that from 2024 to 2034, the expected growth rates of these markets are likely to highly vary from each other.

Special Interest Tourism Market:

Event Tourism Market:

Sustainable Tourism Market:

Global Special Interest Tourism Market Analysis by Region

Sustainable tourism is a top trend in the asia pacific special interest tourism market.

The Asia Pacific special interest tourism industry is likely to make big progress. The region is witnessing a boom when it comes to travel and tourism. Many people in countries like India and China have money to spend on traveling which is evident in these countries GDP.

The adoption of special interest tourism in China is forecasted to inflate at a CAGR of 16.00% through 2034.

• Wedding tourism in China has been growing in recent years. China has some great wedding spots like Hainan Island and Sanya.
• The government is also working to improve tourism facilities by building new hotels, resorts, and different places for weddings. This is likely to influence the special interest tourism industry.

Sales of special interest tourism in India are estimated to record a CAGR of 17.40% through 2034.

• With tensions rising between India and the Maldives, the Indian tourism industry is putting more effort into promoting tourism within the country.
• Sustainable tourism is starting to become a thing in India's tourism scene. Many people in India are leaning toward eco-friendly travel, which is expected to boost the special interest tourism market.
• On World Tourism Day 2023, the Ministry of Tourism in India launched 'Travel for LiFE'. This initiative aims to clean up 108 tourist spots as part of the Swachhata Campaign kickoff.

Sports Tourism Makes North America a Top Market for Special Interest Tourism

The North America special interest tourism market is expected to grow well. The United States' sluggish CAGR in the market suggests that travel may decrease as a result of uncertain economic conditions. The fourth quarter GDP in 2023 increased 3.2% on an annualized basis which is less than the third quarter's 4.9% growth.

This might affect the special interest tourism sector, as a slower GDP growth could mean people might spend less on travel. In the meanwhile, Canada is witnessing travel a boom. Passenger numbers on Air Canada are surging as summer approaches.

Demand for special interest tourism in the United States is set to rise with an anticipated CAGR of 5.20% through 2034.

• The United States is a top recipient of global tourism and one of the most visited destinations by outsiders. The most common type of tourism are recreation tourism and sports tourism.
• Sports tourism in the United States is growing at a rapid pace. In recent years, several sporting events are taking place here. This is anticipated to boost the market expansion.

The Canada special interest tourism market is expected to surge at a CAGR of 8.00% through 2034.

• Canada's tourism sector is one of its most important, with more than 20 million tourists visiting each year. These tourists specifically visit Canada's most well-known natural landmark, Niagara Falls.
• Canada is known for its natural and scenic beauty, including snow-capped mountains, beaches, forests, and lakes. Its diverse culture and cuisine make the country a desirable destination.

Growing Popularity of Medical Travel Sparks the Appeal of Special Interest Tourism in Europe

Europe is witnessing continuous and steady growth in demand for special interest tourism, especially in the United Kingdom and Germany. However, given that they are going through recessions similar to those in other European nations, both of these countries are probably going to witness slower CAGRs. The big picture is that the GDP of the Eurozone has stagnated since the third quarter of 2022.

The special interest tourism market in Germany is likely to exhibit a CAGR of 3.10% through 2034.

• Germany emerged as the premier medical tourism destination. The healthcare industry is top-notch healthcare here and offers revolutionary treatments.
• The latest medical technology is available at more than half of the nation's hospitals. In the fields of reproductive medicine, orthopedic surgery, and neurosurgery, the country competes with developed nations.

The United Kingdom special interest tourism market is expected to surge at a CAGR of 3.50% through 2034.

• The increased cost of healthcare has led to a notable increase in demand for medical travel, with wellness travel emerging as the most popular type of travel that has changed significantly throughout the epidemic.
• A survey in the United Kingdom showed that over a third of people think health and wellbeing are super important now, compared to before the pandemic when it was just a quarter.

Demand Analysis of Special Interest Tourism by Segment

As far as the tourist of special interest tourism is concerned, the domestic segment is likely to generate significant profit in 2024, holding 67.20% special interest tourism market share. Similarly, the 15 to 25 years segment is expected to perform better in terms of age group, possessing a 34.70% revenue share of special interest tourism industry in 2024.

Influence of Domestic Travelers is Very High in the Special Interest Tourism Market

The domestic segment is poised to become the primary revenue generator within the market. Factors contributing this statistic include:

• Domestic travelers find special interest tourism appealing due to their familiarity with local culture and attractions.
• With no international travel costs or visa requirements, domestic travelers enjoy more flexibility in terms of time and budget.
• These travelers often have established networks and connections within the destination. This allow them to access exclusive experiences.

Special Interest Tourism Emerged as the Go-to Choice for 15 to 25 Years Age Group

The chief position in the market is held by the 15 to 25 years segment, a trend substantiated by factors such as:

• This particular age group prefers special interest tourism because they look for unique and memorable experience in every place they visit.
• This age group also values authenticity and seeks experience that are different from mainstream tourist attractions.
• The flexibility and customization options available in special interest tourism satisfy the diverse tastes and preferences of this age group.

Competitive Landscape

Special interest tourism market players employ diverse strategies to gain a competitive edge. Many players focus on niche experiences, such as ecotourism and adventure tourism niche.

While other emphasizes sustainable practices to appeal to environmentally conscious travelers. On the other hand, some leverage technology to offer personalized itineraries and seamless booking experience to target specific demographics.

Recent Developments

• In January 2024, MakeMyTrip, a big online travel company in India, launched the 'Beaches of India' campaign to showcase the many beautiful coastal spots in the country.
• In May 2023, Red Sea Global, the Red Sea and Amaala mega-project developer joined hands together and introduced a first-hand company called Akun to boost sports tourism in Saudi Arabia.
• In September 2022, The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and United Kingdom-based charity Reef-World Foundation jointly announced the Green Fins Hub. It is an online platform that aims to provide sustainable marine tourism a significant lift.

Key Special Interest Tourism Market Players

• The Cultural Travel Company
• Audley Travel
• Myths and Mountains
• Global Medical Treatments
• Carlson Wagonlit Travel
• National Geographic Expeditions
• Flight Centre Travel group
• The Priceline Group
• BrightSpark
• EF Educational Tours
• Wendy Wu Tours UK
• ACIS Educational Company
• Intrepid Travel
• Cox and Kings
• China Highlights
• Globus Student Discoveries
• Kuoda Travel
• ACE Cultural Tours

Key Coverage in the Special Interest Tourism Market Research Report

• Opportunities Available in the Customized Travel Market
• Adjacent Study on the Ecotourism Market
• In-depth Analysis of Offbeat Tourism Opportunities
• Emerging Trends in Special Interest Tourism Market
• Niche Tourism Industry Analysis
• Growth of Customized Travel Market
• Market Overview of Unique Travel Experiences

Key Segments Profiled in the Special Interest Tourism Market Survey

By purpose:.

• Educational
• Health & Therapy

By Activity:

• Nature-Based Tourism
• Wildlife Tourism
• Backpacking
• Mountaineering
• Whitewater Rafting
• Scuba Diving

By Tourist Type:

• International

By Traveler Type:

• Professional

By Age Group:

• 15-25 Years
• 26-35 Years
• 36-45 Years
• 46-55 Years
• 66-75 Years
• North America
• Latin America

Frequently Asked Questions

How big is the special interest tourism market.

The market size for special interest tourism is forecasted to be worth US$ 4,781.14 billion in 2024.

What is the Sales Forecast for Special Interest Tourism?

The special interest tourism market value is projected to surpass US$ 18,843.69 billion by 2034.

What is the Projected CAGR for the Special Interest Tourism Market?

The CAGR of the special interest tourism industry is estimated to be around 14.70% through 2034.

Which Countries Drive the Sales of Special Interest Tourism?

China and India are key contributors in the special interest tourism market as of 2024.

Which is the Leading Brand of Special Interest Tourism?

The Cultural Travel Company and Audley Travel are special interest tourism industry leaders.

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What is Special Interest Tourism?

Do you know what special interest tourism is? If not, don't worry – you're not alone! Many people are unfamiliar with this term. But special interest tourism is an important sector of the tourism industry, and it's something that tour operators should be familiar with.

In this blog post, we will explain what special interest tourism is and why it's important. We'll also discuss how tour businesses can offer this type of tourism. Let's get started!

What is special interest tourism?

Special interest tourism (or specialist interest tourism) is a type of tourism that focuses on specific activities, interests, or experiences. It can include anything from environmental tourism to responsible tourism to film tourism.

Special interest tourists are looking for unique experiences that they won't find elsewhere, so tour businesses need to understand their needs and preferences.

Think about quality over quantity. By tapping into a more specific market , you can provide an experience that matches a corresponding specific interest of the audience.

In the tourism industry where competition is rampant, having a well-defined special interest tour can help you stand out from the crowd. In fact, special interest tourism has seen a rapid growth now more than ever.

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Characteristics of special interest tourism

Special interest tourists differ from regular travelers in that they are looking for a more focused experience. They often have specific interests and knowledge, and they may require certain services or amenities to enhance their visit.

Because of this, special interest tourism requires more detailed planning than other types of tourism. Tour operators must research areas of interest and offer activities and attractions that appeal to their target audience with practical perspective.

They must also understand the local culture and customs, as many special interest activities revolve around cultural experiences.

Why is special interest tourism important?

Special interest tourism provides many benefits to the tourism sector. It allows people to explore unique experiences and activities in an organized and safe manner. This type of tourism also helps to preserve cultural heritage and promote sustainability .

By providing travelers with an authentic and educational experience, special interest tourism allows them to gain a better understanding of different cultures and customs. It also helps to create awareness about environmental issues and encourages responsible travel practices.

Now, people are shying away from the traditional mass tourism model and leaning towards more sustainable and niche travel decisions to satisfy their travel needs.

For instance, tourists would swap their beach trip for a specialist painting holiday or even an adventure across Jordan. This surge in popularity inspire people and has propelled the emergence of special interest tourism, as more and more individuals want to experience something unique.

The growth of specialist tourism

In the wake of COVID-19, people have developed a newfound appreciation for exploring beyond their own homes. This has become especially true as they are now more aware of all the possibilities that lie outside their comfort zones.

Therefore, tour businesses have the opportunity to tap into the growing special interest tourism market and provide specialized services that cater to specific interests. They should research their target audience thoroughly, understand their needs and preferences, and design itineraries accordingly.

Examples of special interest tourism

There are over 150 types of special interest tourism, from eco-tourism to wellness tours. Below are some examples of the main special interest tourism examples:

Health Tourism

This type of tourism combines medical treatments with leisure activities, allowing people to receive medical care and explore a new destination at the same time.

It also includes visiting spas, resorts, and other wellness centers for relaxation.

What's great about health tourism is that travelers can receive health benefits while exploring a new city or country, so this SIT is common for businesses to recommend to tourists.

Culinary/Food Tourism

This type of special interest tourism revolves around food.

The activities involve visiting local restaurants to try out special dishes, attending cooking classes, and taking guided tours of historical sites related to culinary arts. Tourists can also visit farms, markets, and wineries.

Culinary tourism allows people to immerse themselves in the local culture and learn about different cuisines, ingredients, and cooking techniques.

Read: Here's How to Start a Food Tour Business: A Step-by-Step Guide

Adventure Tourism

Adventure tourism involves adventure activities such as mountain biking or climbing, rafting, kayaking, mountaineering, parasailing, etc. It is a great way for tourists to explore and experience the great outdoors.

It also helps to promote sustainable development in local communities, as it encourages the preservation of natural resources and respect for the environment.

Usual destinations for adventure tourism of SIT include Australia, Africa, Thailand, and many more. Take note that this is also known as the environmental tourism.

Dark Tourism

As its name suggests, dark tourism involves visiting places associated with death, tragedy, or suffering.

Some examples of destinations include the Auschwitz concentration camp and the 9/11 Memorial in New York City.

This special interest in tourism may be controversial for some people, but it gives visitors an insight into the history and culture of a destination. It also helps to create awareness about dark events that have occurred in the past.

Spiritual/Religious Tourism

For tourists who are looking for a more meaningful experience, spiritual or religious tourism is the answer.

This special interest in tourism involves visiting holy places and participating in rituals that are specific to the destination’s culture.

Examples include attending Hindu festivals in India, exploring temples in Cambodia, and touring churches in Europe. Tourists can also take part in meditation retreats and yoga classes for a deeper understanding of the local religion.

Cultural Tourism

This special interest in tourism revolves around exploring the culture, traditions, and customs of certain destinations.

It can include attending festivals and special events, taking part in cultural workshops, touring historical sites, and visiting museums to learn about different cultures.

Cultural tourism is a great way for tourists to gain an appreciation of local customs and traditions, giving them a deeper understanding of the destination.

Rural Tourism

Traveling in the countryside may be a great way to escape the hustle and bustle of city life. Rural tourism offers travelers a unique opportunity to connect with nature, explore picturesque landscapes, and get back in touch with traditional ways of life.

Popular spots and destinations for this include Poland, the Middle East, the Philippines, and more. This type of SIT is ideal for people who want to learn more about rural cultures and experience life outside of tourist destinations.

From visiting farms to taking part in nature activities, it provides an immersive experience that can’t be found elsewhere.

Wildlife Tourism

Animal interaction is also a popular special interest in tourism. Wildlife tourism involves visiting wildlife preserves, zoos, and animal sanctuaries to observe animals in their natural habitat or learn about conservation efforts.

This is beneficial for both travelers and the local community as it can help promote environmental awareness and generate income for the local economy. Popular destinations for wildlife tourism include Africa, Australia, and the Galapagos Islands.

Sports Tourism

For active travelers, sports tourism involves activities such as skiing, surfing, golfing, and more. Tourists can also experience special sports events such as the Olympics or watch professional sporting events in person.

Sports tourism is not just about taking part in athletic activities; it’s also an opportunity to explore a destination and learn about its culture and traditions. Germany, Italy, the Middle East, Spain, Belgium, and more are great destinations for this special interest in tourism.

Architourism (or Architectural Tourism)

While this special interest in tourism is not as popular, it still offers travelers an interesting experience. Architourism involves visiting destinations that are renowned for their architecture and design.

This special interest can involve exploring the Old Town of Prague, admiring Renaissance buildings in Florence, or touring modern skyscrapers in Singapore. It’s a great way to gain an appreciation of the history and culture behind a destination’s architecture.

Battlefields Tourism

For those who are fascinated by history and warfare, special interest in tourism also provides battlefield tours. These offer travelers a chance to explore the sites of famous wars and battles from around the world.

Battlefields tourism can include touring World War II memorials in France, visiting sites from the American Civil War, or learning about historical landmarks from the Korean War. It’s an interesting and unique way to explore history in a new light.

Wedding Tourism

Newlyweds may opt for a special interest in tourism to take part in a destination wedding. From beach weddings in Greece to mountain elopements in Switzerland, this special interest offers couples the chance to get married in a beautiful and romantic location.

Wedding tourism can also include attending special events such as traditional Indian or Chinese weddings. This is a great way to get a deeper understanding of foreign cultures and their wedding ceremonies.

Dive into Special Tourism Research

Unlock the secrets of special interest tourism with experts B. Weiler and C. Hall and the treasure trove of information in the Journal of Travel Research ! Weiler and Hall explore why people choose holidays based on hobbies, like food tours or bird-watching trips. Their findings help us understand what makes these special trips tick and how they’re different from regular holidays.

• Special Interest Tourism by Weiler and Hall
• Journal of Travel Research

Meanwhile, the Journal of Travel Research is your go-to place for all things travel and tourism, packed with studies and articles that explore people's many travel styles. For businesses and travel buffs, these resources are gold!

Use their insights to create engaging travel experiences that speak directly to travelers’ unique interests and passions. It’s all about crafting journeys that people love because they’re tailored just for them.

Wrapping Up

Special interest in tourism is an ideal way to explore a new destination and gain a deeper appreciation for its culture, traditions, and landscapes. From wildlife tours to wedding ceremonies, special interests in tourism can be tailored to any traveler’s unique interests.

Finding the right SIT as a tour operator may be challenging, but the rewards are worth it for providing travelers with special and authentic experiences.

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With Ticketinghub, special interest tourism has never been easier. Get started today and make special interest tourism work for your business.

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What is the meaning of special interest tourism.

Special interest tourism refers to travel motivated by the specific interests or passions of the tourist, rather than traditional tourism destinations. Special interest tourism definition encompasses various niche markets and forms of tourism, including cultural sites, wellness tourism, adventure activities, sports tourism, and eco-tourism. Activities are centered around unique, often specialized interests or customized leisure experiences.

What is an example of special interest tourism?

Special interest tourism could include culinary tourism, where travelers explore destinations to experience local cuisines and culinary traditions. Other examples include bird-watching tours, wine-tasting trips, and historical exploration, all of which fall under specialized tourism due to their specific focus.

Is special interest tourism in demand?

Absolutely! Over the past decade, special interest tourism has become a hot trend in the travel world, showing rising demand. Why? More and more travelers want unique experiences. They're not just visiting a particular destination; they're diving deep into what makes that place special.

This isn't just a passing trend. It's a growing industry. People are moving away from tourist spots and seeking out activities and experiences that match their personal interests. Think about it: instead of just visiting a city, travelers are now keen on joining recreational activities or learning from local people about their culture and traditions.

Recognizing this shift, many places are stepping up their destination marketing game. They're offering flexible packages that let tourists truly engage with the local area. It's not just about seeing sights anymore; it's about buying experiences that enrich the soul and promote well-being.

In short, the increasing number of travelers wanting more than just a standard vacation is the chief driver behind this boom. They're after genuine, memorable moments, and special interest tourism delivers just that.

What are the motivations for special interest tourism?

Motivation for special interest tourism often stems from a desire to delve deeper into particular hobbies or passions. Travelers may seek authentic experiences, knowledge enhancement, social interaction, or even physical wellness. These interests are all catered for by unique activities and destinations related to their interests, such as special interest holidays.

How do you identify special interests?

Identifying special interests involves exploring and understanding personal preferences, passions, and hobbies. It could be related to activities like hiking, historical exploration, or culinary experiences. These activities can be catered for through specialist tourism offerings, providing in-depth and tailored experiences.

What are special interest sites?

Special interest sites refer to destinations or platforms that cater to the specific hobbies or passions of a group of people. Special interest tourism sites might include historical landmarks, nature reserves, or culinary hotspots. These sites offer distinctive experiences and cater to particular interests or activities.

What is the difference between mass tourism and special interest tourism?

While mass tourism typically involves large numbers of people visiting popular destinations for general leisure activities, special interest tourism is characterized by travelers seeking specialized experiences aligned with their specific interests or passions, such as bird-watching or historical exploration, often in small groups.

What are the five tourist motivations?

The five tourist motivations include:

• Knowledge : Seeking information and education.
• Adventure : Pursuing thrills and excitement.
• Relaxation : Desiring rest and rejuvenation.
• Social Interaction : Wants to engage with others.
• Personal Fulfillment : Seeking self-actualization and accomplishment through travel.

What motivates tourists?

The main factors that motivate tourists include cultural curiosity, adventure seeking, relaxation, business purposes, and social interaction. In special interest tourism, motivations might also be deeply tied to specific hobbies or passions. For example, exploring specialised tourism examples like culinary or adventure tourism.

What are the two main roles of a special interest group?

Special interest groups have two main roles: advocacy and representation. These groups actively influence public policy and opinion in favor of their particular interests or causes. They represent the needs and desires of their members, often playing a crucial role in shaping related policies and practices.

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AITO – The Specialist Travel Association

Trends in specialist travel revealed in the aito travel insights report 2020, brexit, what brexit 80% of travellers’ holiday plans not affected by the uk’s departure from the eu, value for money comes fourth amongst six factors when considering booking a holiday, customer reviews have doubled in importance for travellers since 2019.

British travellers aren’t holding off on their holiday plans as Brexit advances, with 80% claiming it has had no effect on them whatsoever, according to a recent survey by AITO , The Specialist Travel Association. Of the 20% whose holiday plans have been hindered or changes in some way by Brexit, 73% of them are less likely to book a holiday to Europe in 2020, with concerns over access to EU countries and potential long airport queues.

The AITO Travel Insights Report 2020, compiled in association with leading travel data insight agency  SPIKE , has – for the 5th year in succession – delved into the travel habits of the specialist traveller, who largely falls into the 50+ market (80%, with an average age of 61), usually travels as a couple (57.4%) and tends to take two or more holidays a year (36%).

The 2020 specialist traveller has been hit by the latest ‘Waitrose effect’ (in the latest Which? Supermarket Satisfaction Survey , the supermarket came top in every category but price) and considers value for money fourth on the list when booking a holiday, below (1) knowledge and expertise, (2) a holiday company offering a preferred specialism, and (3) having a previous good experience with the tour operator. There is a remarkable thirst for specialist expertise and a willingness to pay more for an experience to make it memorable.

Verifiable customer reviews are more influential than ever before, nearly doubling in importance – from 19.9% in 2019 to 39% – in 2020. However, travellers are wary of fake review sites and untrustworthy platforms and it is imperative for the industry to ensure that feedback submitted is submitted by genuine customers. AITO’s own review system on AITO.com, for example, has measures in place to ensure that reviews are solely from authentic sources.

The AITO Travel Insights Report 2020 revealed the following Top 10 specialist interests as:

1. Exploring culture, arts and history 2. Walking and trekking 3. Wildlife 4. Safaris 5. Gastronomy and wine 6. Skiing and winter sports 7. Photography 8. Archaeology 9. Gardens 10. Wellness and spa

While cultural holidays top the list, wellness & spa holidays have edged their way into the Top 10 list in 2020, along with skiing & winter sports and photography, demonstrating a desire for holidays with purpose, whether it be wellbeing, fitness or learning a new skill.

AITO’s Executive Director, Martyn Sumners says: “This report and the research behind it proves how vital it is for our specialist holidays companies to utilise their vast expertise and knowledge to help consumers navigate the world of travel bookings and to make their experiences memorable and meaningful.

“Specialist travel is hugely different from the mass-market holiday sector, and we need to keep refining our research to help our members to understand the needs of the discerning customer and to provide them with an experience like no other.”

NOTES TO EDITORS

Some 40 companies participated in the research – a mix of AITO tour operators and AITO Agents – and 26,000 customers responded to the detailed survey.

AITO , The Specialist Travel Association, is a group of unique and specialist travel companies, which collectively provide an unrivalled range of holidays. When booking with an AITO member, you are assured of the finest personal service, expert knowledge, and a holiday that is fully financially protected. All AITO members are fully bonded and comply with AITO’s Quality Charter and Sustainable Tourism goals. Their joint aim is to offer the best possible holiday, allied with excellent customer service.

For more information on AITO’s 120-plus specialist holiday companies with an unrivalled collection of holiday ideas covering every corner of the world, visit www.aito.com .

About SPIKE

SPIKE is the leading data insight and customer experience specialist in travel. Founded in 2009 by Roy Barker and Jon Walton, SPIKE aims to deliver commercial value by using powerful data analysis techniques, Net Promoter Scores, and the latest technology to help businesses benchmark, monitor and improve their customer experience.

Press: For more information on AITO or AITO Specialist Travel Agents, or for high-res photos, please contact Jackie Franklin or Charlotte Griffiths at Travel PR on 020 8891 4440 or email [email protected] or [email protected] .

AITO TRAVEL WRITER OF THE YEAR AWARDS 2024 ARE NOW OPEN

Aito’s travel insights report 2024 reveals interesting trends in specialist travel, aito travel writer of the year awards.

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The state of tourism and hospitality 2024

Tourism and hospitality are on a journey of disruption. Shifting source markets and destinations, growing demand for experiential and luxury travel, and innovative business strategies are all combining to dramatically alter the industry landscape. Given this momentous change, it’s important for stakeholders to consider and strategize on four major themes:

• The bulk of travel is close to home. Although international travel might draw headlines, stakeholders shouldn’t neglect the big opportunities in their backyards. Domestic travel still represents the bulk of travel spending, and intraregional tourism is on the rise.
• Consumers increasingly prioritize travel—when it’s on their own terms. Interest in travel is booming, but travelers are no longer content with a one-size-fits-all experience. Individual personalization might not always be practical, but savvy industry players can use segmentation and hypothesis-driven testing to improve their value propositions. Those that fail to articulate target customer segments and adapt their offerings accordingly risk getting left behind.
• The face of luxury travel is changing. Demand for luxury tourism and hospitality is expected to grow faster than any other travel segment today—particularly in Asia. It’s crucial to understand that luxury travelers don’t make up a monolith. Segmenting by age, nationality, and net worth can reveal varied and evolving preferences and behaviors.
• As tourism grows, destinations will need to prepare to mitigate overcrowding. Destinations need to be ready to handle the large tourist flows of tomorrow. Now is the time for stakeholders to plan, develop, and invest in mitigation strategies. Equipped with accurate assessments of carrying capacities and enhanced abilities to gather and analyze data, destinations can improve their transportation and infrastructure, build tourism-ready workforces, and preserve their natural and cultural heritages.

McKinsey Live event: Faces, places, and trends: The state of tourism & hospitality

Thursday, June 13 at 10:30 a.m EDT / 4:30 p.m CET

Now boarding: Faces, places, and trends shaping tourism in 2024

Global travel is back and buzzing. The amount of travel fell by 75 percent in 2020; however, travel is on its way to a full recovery by the end of 2024. More regional trips, an emerging population of new travelers, and a fresh set of destinations are powering steady spending in tourism.

There’s no doubt that people still love to travel and will continue to seek new experiences in new places. But where will travelers come from, and where will they go?

We share a snapshot of current traveler flows, along with estimates for growth through 2030.

The way we travel now

Which trends are shaping traveler sentiment now? What sorts of journeys do today’s travelers dream about? How much are they willing to spend on their trips? And what should industry stakeholders do to adapt to the traveler psychology of the moment?

To gauge what’s on the minds of present-day travelers, we surveyed more than 5,000 of them. The findings reveal disparate desires, generational divides, and a newly emerging set of traveler archetypes.

Updating perceptions about today’s luxury traveler

Demand for luxury tourism and hospitality is expected to grow faster than for any other segment. This growth is being powered in part by a large and expanding base of aspiring luxury travelers with net worths between $100,000 and $1 million, many of whom are younger and increasingly willing to spend larger shares of their wealth on upscale travel options. The increase is also a result of rising wealth levels in Asia.

We dug deeper into this ongoing evolution by surveying luxury travelers around the globe about their preferences, plans, and expectations. Some widely held notions about luxury travelers—such as how much money they have, how old they are, and where they come from—could be due for reexamination.

Destination readiness: Preparing for the tourist flows of tomorrow

As global tourism grows, it will be crucial for destinations to be ready. How can the tourism ecosystem prepare to host unprecedented volumes of visitors while managing the challenges that can accompany this success? A large flow of tourists, if not carefully channeled, can encumber infrastructure, harm natural and cultural attractions, and frustrate locals and visitors alike.

Now is the time for tourism stakeholders to combine their thinking and resources to look for better ways to handle the visitor flows of today while properly preparing themselves for the visitor flows of tomorrow. We offer a diagnostic that destinations can use to spot early-warning signs about tourism concentration, along with suggestions for funding mechanisms and strategies to help maximize the benefits of tourism while minimizing its negative impacts.

Six trends shaping new business models in tourism and hospitality

As destinations and source markets have transformed over the past decade, tourism and hospitality companies have evolved, too. Accommodation, home sharing, cruises, and theme parks are among the sectors in which new approaches could present new opportunities. Stakeholders gearing up for new challenges should look for business model innovations that will help sustain their hard-won growth—and profits.

Unbundling offerings, cross-selling distinctive experiences, and embracing data-powered strategies can all be winning moves. A series of insight-driven charts reveal significant trends and an outlook on the future.

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The role of tourism in sustainable development.

• Robert B. Richardson Robert B. Richardson Community Sustainability, Michigan State University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.387
• Published online: 25 March 2021

Sustainable development is the foundational principle for enhancing human and economic development while maintaining the functional integrity of ecological and social systems that support regional economies. Tourism has played a critical role in sustainable development in many countries and regions around the world. In developing countries, tourism development has been used as an important strategy for increasing economic growth, alleviating poverty, creating jobs, and improving food security. Many developing countries are in regions that are characterized by high levels of biological diversity, natural resources, and cultural heritage sites that attract international tourists whose local purchases generate income and support employment and economic development. Tourism has been associated with the principles of sustainable development because of its potential to support environmental protection and livelihoods. However, the relationship between tourism and the environment is multifaceted, as some types of tourism have been associated with negative environmental impacts, many of which are borne by host communities.

The concept of sustainable tourism development emerged in contrast to mass tourism, which involves the participation of large numbers of people, often in structured or packaged tours. Mass tourism has been associated with economic leakage and dependence, along with negative environmental and social impacts. Sustainable tourism development has been promoted in various ways as a framing concept in contrast to these economic, environmental, and social impacts. Some literature has acknowledged a vagueness of the concept of sustainable tourism, which has been used to advocate for fundamentally different strategies for tourism development that may exacerbate existing conflicts between conservation and development paradigms. Tourism has played an important role in sustainable development in some countries through the development of alternative tourism models, including ecotourism, community-based tourism, pro-poor tourism, slow tourism, green tourism, and heritage tourism, among others that aim to enhance livelihoods, increase local economic growth, and provide for environmental protection. Although these models have been given significant attention among researchers, the extent of their implementation in tourism planning initiatives has been limited, superficial, or incomplete in many contexts.

The sustainability of tourism as a global system is disputed among scholars. Tourism is dependent on travel, and nearly all forms of transportation require the use of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels for energy. The burning of fossil fuels for transportation generates emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to global climate change, which is fundamentally unsustainable. Tourism is also vulnerable to both localized and global shocks. Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to localized shocks include the impacts of natural disasters, disease outbreaks, and civil unrest. Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to global shocks include the impacts of climate change, economic crisis, global public health pandemics, oil price shocks, and acts of terrorism. It is clear that tourism has contributed significantly to economic development globally, but its role in sustainable development is uncertain, debatable, and potentially contradictory.

• conservation
• economic development
• environmental impacts
• sustainable development
• sustainable tourism
• tourism development

Introduction

Sustainable development is the guiding principle for advancing human and economic development while maintaining the integrity of ecosystems and social systems on which the economy depends. It is also the foundation of the leading global framework for international cooperation—the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015 ). The concept of sustainable development is often associated with the publication of Our Common Future (World Commission on Environment and Development [WCED], 1987 , p. 29), which defined it as “paths of human progress that meet the needs and aspirations of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” Concerns about the environmental implications of economic development in lower income countries had been central to debates about development studies since the 1970s (Adams, 2009 ). The principles of sustainable development have come to dominate the development discourse, and the concept has become the primary development paradigm since the 1990s.

Tourism has played an increasingly important role in sustainable development since the 1990s, both globally and in particular countries and regions. For decades, tourism has been promoted as a low-impact, non-extractive option for economic development, particularly for developing countries (Gössling, 2000 ). Many developing countries have managed to increase their participation in the global economy through development of international tourism. Tourism development is increasingly viewed as an important tool in increasing economic growth, alleviating poverty, and improving food security. Tourism enables communities that are poor in material wealth, but rich in history and cultural heritage, to leverage their unique assets for economic development (Honey & Gilpin, 2009 ). More importantly, tourism offers an alternative to large-scale development projects, such as construction of dams, and to extractive industries such as mining and forestry, all of which contribute to emissions of pollutants and threaten biodiversity and the cultural values of Indigenous Peoples.

Environmental quality in destination areas is inextricably linked with tourism, as visiting natural areas and sightseeing are often the primary purpose of many leisure travels. Some forms of tourism, such as ecotourism, can contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and the protection of ecosystem functions in destination areas (Fennell, 2020 ; Gössling, 1999 ). Butler ( 1991 ) suggests that there is a kind of mutual dependence between tourism and the environment that should generate mutual benefits. Many developing countries are in regions that are characterized by high levels of species diversity, natural resources, and protected areas. Such ideas imply that tourism may be well aligned with the tenets of sustainable development.

However, the relationship between tourism and the environment is complex, as some forms of tourism have been associated with negative environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater use, land use, and food consumption (Butler, 1991 ; Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ; Hunter & Green, 1995 ; Vitousek et al., 1997 ). Assessments of the sustainability of tourism have highlighted several themes, including (a) parks, biodiversity, and conservation; (b) pollution and climate change; (c) prosperity, economic growth, and poverty alleviation; (d) peace, security, and safety; and (e) population stabilization and reduction (Buckley, 2012 ). From a global perspective, tourism contributes to (a) changes in land cover and land use; (b) energy use, (c) biotic exchange and extinction of wild species; (d) exchange and dispersion of diseases; and (e) changes in the perception and understanding of the environment (Gössling, 2002 ).

Research on tourism and the environment spans a wide range of social and natural science disciplines, and key contributions have been disseminated across many interdisciplinary fields, including biodiversity conservation, climate science, economics, and environmental science, among others (Buckley, 2011 ; Butler, 1991 ; Gössling, 2002 ; Lenzen et al., 2018 ). Given the global significance of the tourism sector and its environmental impacts, the role of tourism in sustainable development is an important topic of research in environmental science generally and in environmental economics and management specifically. Reviews of tourism research have highlighted future research priorities for sustainable development, including the role of tourism in the designation and expansion of protected areas; improvement in environmental accounting techniques that quantify environmental impacts; and the effects of individual perceptions of responsibility in addressing climate change (Buckley, 2012 ).

Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries, and it has linkages with many of the prime sectors of the global economy (Fennell, 2020 ). As a global economic sector, tourism represents one of the largest generators of wealth, and it is an important agent of economic growth and development (Garau-Vadell et al., 2018 ). Tourism is a critical industry in many local and national economies, and it represents a large and growing share of world trade (Hunter, 1995 ). Global tourism has had an average annual increase of 6.6% over the past half century, with international tourist arrivals rising sharply from 25.2 million in 1950 to more than 950 million in 2010 . In 2019 , the number of international tourists reached 1.5 billion, up 4% from 2018 (Fennell, 2020 ; United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2020 ). European countries are host to more than half of international tourists, but since 1990 , growth in international arrivals has risen faster than the global average, in both the Middle East and the Asia and Pacific region (UNWTO, 2020 ).

The growth in global tourism has been accompanied by an expansion of travel markets and a diversification of tourism destinations. In 1950 , the top five travel destinations were all countries in Europe and the Americas, and these destinations held 71% of the global travel market (Fennell, 2020 ). By 2002 , these countries represented only 35%, which underscores the emergence of newly accessible travel destinations in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and the Pacific Rim, including numerous developing countries. Over the past 70 years, global tourism has grown significantly as an economic sector, and it has contributed to the economic development of dozens of nations.

Given the growth of international tourism and its emergence as one of the world’s largest export sectors, the question of its impact on economic growth for the host countries has been a topic of great interest in the tourism literature. Two hypotheses have emerged regarding the role of tourism in the economic growth process (Apergis & Payne, 2012 ). First, tourism-led growth hypothesis relies on the assumption that tourism is an engine of growth that generates spillovers and positive externalities through economic linkages that will impact the overall economy. Second, the economic-driven tourism growth hypothesis emphasizes policies oriented toward well-defined and enforceable property rights, stable political institutions, and adequate investment in both physical and human capital to facilitate the development of the tourism sector. Studies have concluded with support for both the tourism-led growth hypothesis (e.g., Durbarry, 2004 ; Katircioglu, 2010 ) and the economic-led growth hypothesis (e.g., Katircioglu, 2009 ; Oh, 2005 ), whereas other studies have found support for a bidirectional causality for tourism and economic growth (e.g., Apergis & Payne, 2012 ; Lee & Chang, 2008 ).

The growth of tourism has been marked by an increase in the competition for tourist expenditures, making it difficult for destinations to maintain their share of the international tourism market (Butler, 1991 ). Tourism development is cyclical and subject to short-term cycles and overconsumption of resources. Butler ( 1980 ) developed a tourist-area cycle of evolution that depicts the number of tourists rising sharply over time through periods of exploration, involvement, and development, before eventual consolidation and stagnation. When tourism growth exceeds the carrying capacity of the area, resource degradation can lead to the decline of tourism unless specific steps are taken to promote rejuvenation (Butler, 1980 , 1991 ).

The potential of tourism development as a tool to contribute to environmental conservation, economic growth, and poverty reduction is derived from several unique characteristics of the tourism system (UNWTO, 2002 ). First, tourism represents an opportunity for economic diversification, particularly in marginal areas with few other export options. Tourists are attracted to remote areas with high values of cultural, wildlife, and landscape assets. The cultural and natural heritage of developing countries is frequently based on such assets, and tourism represents an opportunity for income generation through the preservation of heritage values. Tourism is the only export sector where the consumer travels to the exporting country, which provides opportunities for lower-income households to become exporters through the sale of goods and services to foreign tourists. Tourism is also labor intensive; it provides small-scale employment opportunities, which also helps to promote gender equity. Finally, there are numerous indirect benefits of tourism for people living in poverty, including increased market access for remote areas through the development of roads, infrastructure, and communication networks. Nevertheless, travel is highly income elastic and carbon intensive, which has significant implications for the sustainability of the tourism sector (Lenzen et al., 2018 ).

Concerns about environmental issues appeared in tourism research just as global awareness of the environmental impacts of human activities was expanding. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm in 1972 , the same year as the publication of The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972 ), which highlighted the concerns about the implications of exponential economic and population growth in a world of finite resources. This was the same year that the famous Blue Marble photograph of Earth was taken by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft (Höhler, 2015 , p. 10), and the image captured the planet cloaked in the darkness of space and became a symbol of Earth’s fragility and vulnerability. As noted by Buckley ( 2012 ), tourism researchers turned their attention to social and environmental issues around the same time (Cohen, 1978 ; Farrell & McLellan, 1987 ; Turner & Ash, 1975 ; Young, 1973 ).

The notion of sustainable development is often associated with the publication of Our Common Future , the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, also known as the Brundtland Commission (WCED, 1987 ). The report characterized sustainable development in terms of meeting “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987 , p. 43). Four basic principles are fundamental to the concept of sustainability: (a) the idea of holistic planning and strategy making; (b) the importance of preserving essential ecological processes; (c) the need to protect both human heritage and biodiversity; and (d) the need to develop in such a way that productivity can be sustained over the long term for future generations (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ). In addition to achieving balance between economic growth and the conservation of natural resources, there should be a balance of fairness and opportunity between the nations of the world.

Although the modern concept of sustainable development emerged with the publication of Our Common Future , sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management that were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries (Blewitt, 2015 ; Grober, 2007 ). Sustainable forest management is concerned with the stewardship and use of forests in a way that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, and regeneration capacity as well as their potential to fulfill society’s demands for forest products and benefits. Building on these ideas, Daly ( 1990 ) offered two operational principles of sustainable development. First, sustainable development implies that harvest rates should be no greater than rates of regeneration; this concept is known as maximum sustainable yield. Second, waste emission rates should not exceed the natural assimilative capacities of the ecosystems into which the wastes are emitted. Regenerative and assimilative capacities are characterized as natural capital, and a failure to maintain these capacities is not sustainable.

Shortly after the emergence of the concept of sustainable development in academic and policy discourse, tourism researchers began referring to the notion of sustainable tourism (May, 1991 ; Nash & Butler, 1990 ), which soon became the dominant paradigm of tourism development. The concept of sustainable tourism, as with the role of tourism in sustainable development, has been interpreted in different ways, and there is a lack of consensus concerning its meaning, objectives, and indicators (Sharpley, 2000 ). Growing interest in the subject inspired the creation of a new academic journal, Journal of Sustainable Tourism , which was launched in 1993 and has become a leading tourism journal. It is described as “an international journal that publishes research on tourism and sustainable development, including economic, social, cultural and political aspects.”

The notion of sustainable tourism development emerged in contrast to mass tourism, which is characterized by the participation of large numbers of people, often provided as structured or packaged tours. Mass tourism has risen sharply in the last half century. International arrivals alone have increased by an average annual rate of more than 25% since 1950 , and many of those trips involved mass tourism activities (Fennell, 2020 ; UNWTO, 2020 ). Some examples of mass tourism include beach resorts, cruise ship tourism, gaming casinos, golf resorts, group tours, ski resorts, theme parks, and wildlife safari tourism, among others. Little data exist regarding the volume of domestic mass tourism, but nevertheless mass tourism activities dominate the global tourism sector. Mass tourism has been shown to generate benefits to host countries, such as income and employment generation, although it has also been associated with economic leakage (where revenue generated by tourism is lost to other countries’ economies) and economic dependency (where developing countries are dependent on wealthier countries for tourists, imports, and foreign investment) (Cater, 1993 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Khan, 1997 ; Peeters, 2012 ). Mass tourism has been associated with numerous negative environmental impacts and social impacts (Cater, 1993 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Fennell, 2020 ; Ghimire, 2013 ; Gursoy et al., 2010 ; Liu, 2003 ; Peeters, 2012 ; Wheeller, 2007 ). Sustainable tourism development has been promoted in various ways as a framing concept in contrast to many of these economic, environmental, and social impacts.

Much of the early research on sustainable tourism focused on defining the concept, which has been the subject of vigorous debate (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ; Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Inskeep, 1991 ; Liu, 2003 ; Sharpley, 2000 ). Early definitions of sustainable tourism development seemed to fall in one of two categories (Sharpley, 2000 ). First, the “tourism-centric” paradigm of sustainable tourism development focuses on sustaining tourism as an economic activity (Hunter, 1995 ). Second, alternative paradigms have situated sustainable tourism in the context of wider sustainable development policies (Butler, 1991 ). One of the most comprehensive definitions of sustainable tourism echoes some of the language of the Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustainable development (WCED, 1987 ), emphasizing opportunities for the future while also integrating social and environmental concerns:

Sustainable tourism can be thought of as meeting the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future. Sustainable tourism development is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that we can fulfill economic, social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems. (Inskeep, 1991 , p. 461)

Hunter argued that over the short and long terms, sustainable tourism development should

“meet the needs and wants of the local host community in terms of improved living standards and quality of life;

satisfy the demands of tourists and the tourism industry, and continue to attract them in order to meet the first aim; and

safeguard the environmental resource base for tourism, encompassing natural, built and cultural components, in order to achieve both of the preceding aims.” (Hunter, 1995 , p. 156)

Numerous other definitions have been documented, and the term itself has been subject to widespread critique (Buckley, 2012 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Liu, 2003 ). Nevertheless, there have been numerous calls to move beyond debate about a definition and to consider how it may best be implemented in practice (Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Liu, 2003 ). Cater ( 1993 ) identified three key criteria for sustainable tourism: (a) meeting the needs of the host population in terms of improved living standards both in the short and long terms; (b) satisfying the demands of a growing number of tourists; and (c) safeguarding the natural environment in order to achieve both of the preceding aims.

Some literature has acknowledged a vagueness of the concept of sustainable tourism, which has been used to advocate for fundamentally different strategies for tourism development that may exacerbate existing conflicts between conservation and development paradigms (Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Liu, 2003 ; McKercher, 1993b ). Similar criticisms have been leveled at the concept of sustainable development, which has been described as an oxymoron with a wide range of meanings (Adams, 2009 ; Daly, 1990 ) and “defined in such a way as to be either morally repugnant or logically redundant” (Beckerman, 1994 , p. 192). Sharpley ( 2000 ) suggests that in the tourism literature, there has been “a consistent and fundamental failure to build a theoretical link between sustainable tourism and its parental paradigm,” sustainable development (p. 2). Hunter ( 1995 ) suggests that practical measures designed to operationalize sustainable tourism fail to address many of the critical issues that are central to the concept of sustainable development generally and may even actually counteract the fundamental requirements of sustainable development. He suggests that mainstream sustainable tourism development is concerned with protecting the immediate resource base that will sustain tourism development while ignoring concerns for the status of the wider tourism resource base, such as potential problems associated with air pollution, congestion, introduction of invasive species, and declining oil reserves. The dominant paradigm of sustainable tourism development has been described as introverted, tourism-centric, and in competition with other sectors for scarce resources (McKercher, 1993a ). Hunter ( 1995 , p. 156) proposes an alternative, “extraparochial” paradigm where sustainable tourism development is reconceptualized in terms of its contribution to overall sustainable development. Such a paradigm would reconsider the scope, scale, and sectoral context of tourism-related resource utilization issues.

“Sustainability,” “sustainable tourism,” and “sustainable development” are all well-established terms that have often been used loosely and interchangeably in the tourism literature (Liu, 2003 ). Nevertheless, the subject of sustainable tourism has been given considerable attention and has been the focus of numerous academic compilations and textbooks (Coccossis & Nijkamp, 1995 ; Hall & Lew, 1998 ; Stabler, 1997 ; Swarbrooke, 1999 ), and it calls for new approaches to sustainable tourism development (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ; Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Sharpley, 2000 ). The notion of sustainable tourism has been reconceptualized in the literature by several authors who provided alternative frameworks for tourism development (Buckley, 2012 ; Gössling, 2002 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Liu, 2003 ; McKercher, 1993b ; Sharpley, 2000 ).

Early research in sustainable tourism focused on the local environmental impacts of tourism, including energy use, water use, food consumption, and change in land use (Buckley, 2012 ; Butler, 1991 ; Gössling, 2002 ; Hunter & Green, 1995 ). Subsequent research has emphasized the global environmental impacts of tourism, such as greenhouse gas emissions and biodiversity losses (Gössling, 2002 ; Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ; Lenzen et al., 2018 ). Additional research has emphasized the impacts of environmental change on tourism itself, including the impacts of climate change on tourist behavior (Gössling et al., 2012 ; Richardson & Loomis, 2004 ; Scott et al., 2012 ; Viner, 2006 ). Countries that are dependent on tourism for economic growth may be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Richardson & Witkoswki, 2010 ).

The early focus on environmental issues in sustainable tourism has been broadened to include economic, social, and cultural issues as well as questions of power and equity in society (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ; Sharpley, 2014 ), and some of these frameworks have integrated notions of social equity, prosperity, and cultural heritage values. Sustainable tourism is dependent on critical long-term considerations of the impacts; notions of equity; an appreciation of the importance of linkages (i.e., economic, social, and environmental); and the facilitation of cooperation and collaboration between different stakeholders (Elliott & Neirotti, 2008 ).

McKercher ( 1993b ) notes that tourism resources are typically part of the public domain or are intrinsically linked to the social fabric of the host community. As a result, many commonplace tourist activities such as sightseeing may be perceived as invasive by members of the host community. Many social impacts of tourism can be linked to the overuse of the resource base, increases in traffic congestion, rising land prices, urban sprawl, and changes in the social structure of host communities. Given the importance of tourist–resident interaction, sustainable tourism development depends in part on the support of the host community (Garau-Vadell et al., 2018 ).

Tourism planning involves the dual objectives of optimizing the well-being of local residents in host communities and minimizing the costs of tourism development (Sharpley, 2014 ). Tourism researchers have paid significant attention to examining the social impacts of tourism in general and to understanding host communities’ perceptions of tourism in particular. Studies of the social impacts of tourism development have examined the perceptions of local residents and the effects of tourism on social cohesion, traditional lifestyles, and the erosion of cultural heritage, particularly among Indigenous Peoples (Butler & Hinch, 2007 ; Deery et al., 2012 ; Mathieson & Wall, 1982 ; Sharpley, 2014 ; Whitford & Ruhanen, 2016 ).

Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development

A wide body of published research is related to the role of tourism in sustainable development, and much of the literature involves case studies of particular types of tourism. Many such studies contrast types of alternative tourism with those of mass tourism, which has received sustained criticism for decades and is widely considered to be unsustainable (Cater, 1993 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Fennell, 2020 ; Gursoy et al., 2010 ; Liu, 2003 ; Peeters, 2012 ; Zapata et al., 2011 ). Still, some tourism researchers have taken issue with the conclusion that mass tourism is inherently unsustainable (Sharpley, 2000 ; Weaver, 2007 ), and some have argued for developing pathways to “sustainable mass tourism” as “the desired and impending outcome for most destinations” (Weaver, 2012 , p. 1030). In integrating an ethical component to mass tourism development, Weaver ( 2014 , p. 131) suggests that the desirable outcome is “enlightened mass tourism.” Such suggestions have been contested in the literature and criticized for dubious assumptions about emergent norms of sustainability and support for growth, which are widely seen as contradictory (Peeters, 2012 ; Wheeller, 2007 ).

Models of responsible or alternative tourism development include ecotourism, community-based tourism, pro-poor tourism, slow tourism, green tourism, and heritage tourism, among others. Most models of alternative tourism development emphasize themes that aim to counteract the perceived negative impacts of conventional or mass tourism. As such, the objectives of these models of tourism development tend to focus on minimizing environmental impacts, supporting biodiversity conservation, empowering local communities, alleviating poverty, and engendering pleasant relationships between tourists and residents.

Approaches to alternative tourism development tend to overlap with themes of responsible tourism, and the two terms are frequently used interchangeably. Responsible tourism has been characterized in terms of numerous elements, including

ensuring that communities are involved in and benefit from tourism;

respecting local, natural, and cultural environments;

involving the local community in planning and decision-making;

using local resources sustainably;

behaving in ways that are sensitive to the host culture;

maintaining and encouraging natural, economic, and cultural diversity; and

assessing environmental, social, and economic impacts as a prerequisite to tourism development (Spenceley, 2012 ).

Hetzer ( 1965 ) identified four fundamental principles or perquisites for a more responsible form of tourism: (a) minimum environmental impact; (b) minimum impact on and maximum respect for host cultures; (c) maximum economic benefits to the host country; and (d) maximum leisure satisfaction to participating tourists.

The history of ecotourism is closely connected with the emergence of sustainable development, as it was born out of a concern for the conservation of biodiversity. Ecotourism is a form of tourism that aims to minimize local environmental impacts while bringing benefits to protected areas and the people living around those lands (Honey, 2008 ). Ecotourism represents a small segment of nature-based tourism, which is understood as tourism based on the natural attractions of an area, such as scenic areas and wildlife (Gössling, 1999 ). The ecotourism movement gained momentum in the 1990s, primarily in developing countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa, and nearly all countries are now engaged in some form of ecotourism. In some communities, ecotourism is the primary economic activity and source of income and economic development.

The term “ecotourism” was coined by Hector Ceballos-Lascuráin and defined by him as “tourism that consists in travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals” (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1987 , p. 13). In discussing ecotourism resources, he also made reference to “any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas” (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1987 , p. 14). The basic precepts of ecotourism had been discussed long before the actual use of the term. Twenty years earlier, Hetzer ( 1965 ) referred to a form of tourism “based principally upon natural and archaeological resources such as caves, fossil sites (and) archaeological sites.” Thus, both natural resources and cultural resources were integrated into ecotourism frameworks from the earliest manifestations.

Costa Rica is well known for having successfully integrated ecotourism in its overall strategy for sustainable development, and numerous case studies of ecotourism in Costa Rica appear in the literature (Chase et al., 1998 ; Fennell & Eagles, 1990 ; Gray & Campbell, 2007 ; Hearne & Salinas, 2002 ). Ecotourism in Costa Rica has been seen as having supported the economic development of the country while promoting biodiversity conservation in its extensive network of protected areas. Chase et al. ( 1998 ) estimated the demand for ecotourism in a study of differential pricing of entrance fees at national parks in Costa Rica. The authors estimated elasticities associated with the own-price, cross-price, and income variables and found that the elasticities of demand were significantly different between three different national park sites. The results reveal the heterogeneity characterizing tourist behavior and park attractions and amenities. Hearne and Salinas ( 2002 ) used choice experiments to examine the preferences of domestic and foreign tourists in Costa Rica in an ecotourism site. Both sets of tourists demonstrated a preference for improved infrastructure, more information, and lower entrance fees. Foreign tourists demonstrated relatively stronger preferences for the inclusion of restrictions in the access to some trails.

Ecotourism has also been studied extensively in Kenya (Southgate, 2006 ), Malaysia (Lian Chan & Baum, 2007 ), Nepal (Baral et al., 2008 ), Peru (Stronza, 2007 ), and Taiwan (Lai & Nepal, 2006 ), among many other countries. Numerous case studies have demonstrated the potential for ecotourism to contribute to sustainable development by providing support for biodiversity conservation, local livelihoods, and regional development.

Community-Based Tourism

Community-based tourism (CBT) is a model of tourism development that emphasizes the development of local communities and allows for local residents to have substantial control over its development and management, and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community. CBT emerged during the 1970s as a response to the negative impacts of the international mass tourism development model (Cater, 1993 ; Hall & Lew, 2009 ; Turner & Ash, 1975 ; Zapata et al., 2011 ).

Community-based tourism has been examined for its potential to contribute to poverty reduction. In a study of the viability of the CBT model to support socioeconomic development and poverty alleviation in Nicaragua, tourism was perceived by participants in the study to have an impact on employment creation in their communities (Zapata et al., 2011 ). Tourism was seen to have had positive impacts on strengthening local knowledge and skills, particularly on the integration of women to new roles in the labor market. One of the main perceived gains regarding the environment was the process of raising awareness regarding the conservation of natural resources. The small scale of CBT operations and low capacity to accommodate visitors was seen as a limitation of the model.

Spenceley ( 2012 ) compiled case studies of community-based tourism in countries in southern Africa, including Botswana, Madagascar, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In this volume, authors characterize community-based and nature-based tourism development projects in the region and demonstrate how community participation in planning and decision-making has generated benefits for local residents and supported conservation initiatives. They contend that responsible tourism practices are of particular importance in the region because of the rich biological diversity, abundant charismatic wildlife, and the critical need for local economic development and livelihood strategies.

In Kenya, CBT enterprises were not perceived to have made a significant impact on poverty reduction at an individual household level, in part because the model relied heavily on donor funding, reinforcing dependency and poverty (Manyara & Jones, 2007 ). The study identified several critical success factors for CBT enterprises, namely, awareness and sensitization, community empowerment, effective leadership, and community capacity building, which can inform appropriate tourism policy formulation in Kenya. The impacts of CBT on economic development and poverty reduction would be greatly enhanced if tourism initiatives were able to emphasize independence, address local community priorities, enhance community empowerment and transparency, discourage elitism, promote effective community leadership, and develop community capacity to operate their own enterprises more efficiently.

Pro-Poor Tourism

Pro-poor tourism is a model of tourism development that brings net benefits to people living in poverty (Ashley et al., 2001 ; Harrison, 2008 ). Although its theoretical foundations and development objectives overlap to some degree with those of community-based tourism and other models of AT, the key distinctive feature of pro-poor tourism is that it places poor people and poverty at the top of the agenda. By focusing on a very simple and incontrovertibly moral idea, namely, the net benefits of tourism to impoverished people, the concept has broad appeal to donors and international aid agencies. Harnessing the economic benefits of tourism for pro-poor growth means capitalizing on the advantages while reducing negative impacts to people living in poverty (Ashley et al., 2001 ). Pro-poor approaches to tourism development include increasing access of impoverished people to economic benefits; addressing negative social and environmental impacts associated with tourism; and focusing on policies, processes, and partnerships that seek to remove barriers to participation by people living in poverty. At the local level, pro-poor tourism can play a very significant role in livelihood security and poverty reduction (Ashley & Roe, 2002 ).

Rogerson ( 2011 ) argues that the growth of pro-poor tourism initiatives in South Africa suggests that the country has become a laboratory for the testing and evolution of new approaches toward sustainable development planning that potentially will have relevance for other countries in the developing world. A study of pro-poor tourism development initiatives in Laos identified a number of favorable conditions for pro-poor tourism development, including the fact that local people are open to tourism and motivated to participate (Suntikul et al., 2009 ). The authors also noted a lack of development in the linkages that could optimize the fulfilment of the pro-poor agenda, such as training or facilitation of local people’s participation in pro-poor tourism development at the grassroots level.

Critics of the model have argued that pro-poor tourism is based on an acceptance of the status quo of existing capitalism, that it is morally indiscriminate and theoretically imprecise, and that its practitioners are academically and commercially marginal (Harrison, 2008 ). As Chok et al. ( 2007 ) indicate, the focus “on poor people in the South reflects a strong anthropocentric view . . . and . . . environmental benefits are secondary to poor peoples’” benefits (p. 153).

Harrison ( 2008 ) argues that pro-poor tourism is not a distinctive approach to tourism as a development tool and that it may be easier to discuss what pro-poor tourism is not than what it is. He concludes that it is neither anticapitalist nor inconsistent with mainstream tourism on which it relies; it is neither a theory nor a model and is not a niche form of tourism. Further, he argues that it has no distinctive method and is not only about people living in poverty.

Slow Tourism

The concept of slow tourism has emerged as a model of sustainable tourism development, and as such, it lacks an exact definition. The concept of slow tourism traces its origin back to some institutionalized social movements such as “slow food” and “slow cities” that began in Italy in the 1990s and spread rapidly around the world (Fullagar et al., 2012 ; Oh et al., 2016 , p. 205). Advocates of slow tourism tend to emphasize slowness in terms of speed, mobility, and modes of transportation that generate less environmental pollution. They propose niche marketing for alternative forms of tourism that focus on quality upgrading rather than merely increasing the quantity of visitors via the established mass-tourism infrastructure (Conway & Timms, 2010 ).

In the context of the Caribbean region, slow tourism has been promoted as more culturally sensitive and authentic, as compared to the dominant mass tourism development model that is based on all-inclusive beach resorts dependent on foreign investment (Conway & Timms, 2010 ). Recognizing its value as an alternative marketing strategy, Conway and Timms ( 2010 ) make the case for rebranding alternative tourism in the Caribbean as a means of revitalizing the sector for the changing demands of tourists in the 21st century . They suggest that slow tourism is the antithesis of mass tourism, which “relies on increasing the quantity of tourists who move through the system with little regard to either the quality of the tourists’ experience or the benefits that accrue to the localities the tourist visits” (Conway & Timms, 2010 , p. 332). The authors draw on cases from Barbados, the Grenadines, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago to characterize models of slow tourism development in remote fishing villages and communities near nature preserves and sea turtle nesting sites.

Although there is a growing interest in the concept of slow tourism in the literature, there seems to be little agreement about the exact nature of slow tourism and whether it is a niche form of special interest tourism or whether it represents a more fundamental potential shift across the industry. Conway and Timms ( 2010 ) focus on the destination, advocating for slow tourism in terms of a promotional identity for an industry in need of rebranding. Caffyn ( 2012 , p. 77) discusses the implementation of slow tourism in terms of “encouraging visitors to make slower choices when planning and enjoying their holidays.” It is not clear whether slow tourism is a marketing strategy, a mindset, or a social movement, but the literature on slow tourism nearly always equates the term with sustainable tourism (Caffyn, 2012 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Oh et al., 2016 ). Caffyn ( 2012 , p. 80) suggests that slow tourism could offer a “win–win,” which she describes as “a more sustainable form of tourism; keeping more of the economic benefits within the local community and destination; and delivering a more meaningful and satisfying experience.” Research on slow tourism is nascent, and thus the contribution of slow tourism to sustainable development is not well understood.

Impacts of Tourism Development

The role of tourism in sustainable development can be examined through an understanding of the economic, environmental, and social impacts of tourism. Tourism is a global phenomenon that involves travel, recreation, the consumption of food, overnight accommodations, entertainment, sightseeing, and other activities that simultaneously intersect the lives of local residents, businesses, and communities. The impacts of tourism involve benefits and costs to all groups, and some of these impacts cannot easily be measured. Nevertheless, they have been studied extensively in the literature, which provides some context for how these benefits and costs are distributed.

Economic Impacts of Tourism

The travel and tourism sector is one of the largest components of the global economy, and global tourism has increased exponentially since the end of the Second World War (UNWTO, 2020 ). The direct, indirect, and induced economic impact of global travel accounted for 8.9 trillion U.S. dollars in contribution to the global gross domestic product (GDP), or 10.3% of global GDP. The global travel and tourism sector supports approximately 330 million jobs, or 1 in 10 jobs around the world. From an economic perspective, tourism plays a significant role in sustainable development. In many developing countries, tourism has the potential to play a unique role in income generation and distribution relative to many other industries, in part because of its high multiplier effect and consumption of local goods and services. However, research on the economic impacts of tourism has shown that this potential has rarely been fully realized (Liu, 2003 ).

Numerous studies have examined the impact of tourism expenditure on GDP, income, employment, and public sector revenue. Narayan ( 2004 ) used a computable general equilibrium model to estimate the economic impact of tourism growth on the economy of Fiji. Tourism is Fiji’s largest industry, with average annual growth of 10–12%; and as a middle-income country, tourism is critical to Fiji’s economic development. The findings indicate that an increase in tourism expenditures was associated with an increase in GDP, an improvement in the country’s balance of payments, and an increase in real consumption and national welfare. Evidence suggests that the benefits of tourism expansion outweigh any export effects caused by an appreciation of the exchange rate and an increase in domestic prices and wages.

Seetanah ( 2011 ) examined the potential contribution of tourism to economic growth and development using panel data of 19 island economies around the world from 1990 to 2007 and revealed that tourism development is an important factor in explaining economic performance in the selected island economies. The results have policy implications for improving economic growth by harnessing the contribution of the tourism sector. Pratt ( 2015 ) modeled the economic impact of tourism for seven small island developing states in the Pacific, the Caribbean, and the Indian Ocean. In most states, the transportation sector was found to have above-average linkages to other sectors of the economy. The results revealed some advantages of economies of scale for maximizing the economic contribution of tourism.

Apergis and Payne ( 2012 ) examined the causal relationship between tourism and economic growth for a panel of nine Caribbean countries. The panel of Caribbean countries includes Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. The authors use a panel error correction model to reveal bidirectional causality between tourism and economic growth in both the short run and the long run. The presence of bidirectional causality reiterates the importance of the tourism sector in the generation of foreign exchange income and in financing the production of goods and services within these countries. Likewise, stable political institutions and adequate government policies to ensure the appropriate investment in physical and human capital will enhance economic growth. In turn, stable economic growth will provide the resources needed to develop the tourism infrastructure for the success of the countries’ tourism sector. Thus, policy makers should be cognizant of the interdependent relationship between tourism and economic growth in the design and implementation of economic policy. The mixed nature of these results suggest that the relationship between tourism and economic growth depends largely on the social and economic context as well as the role of tourism in the economy.

The economic benefits and costs of tourism are frequently distributed unevenly. An analysis of the impact of wildlife conservation policies in Zambia on household welfare found that households located near national parks earn higher levels of income from wage employment and self-employment than other rural households in the country, but they were also more likely to suffer crop losses related to wildlife conflicts (Richardson et al., 2012 ). The findings suggest that tourism development and wildlife conservation can contribute to pro-poor development, but they may be sustainable only if human–wildlife conflicts are minimized or compensated.

Environmental Impacts of Tourism

The environmental impacts of tourism are significant, ranging from local effects to contributions to global environmental change (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). Tourism is both dependent on water resources and a factor in global and local freshwater use. Tourists consume water for drinking, when showering and using the toilet, when participating in activities such as winter ski tourism (i.e., snowmaking), and when using swimming pools and spas. Fresh water is also needed to maintain hotel gardens and golf courses, and water use is embedded in tourism infrastructure development (e.g., accommodations, laundry, dining) and in food and fuel production. Direct water consumption in tourism is estimated to be approximately 350 liters (L) per guest night for accommodation; when indirect water use from food, energy, and transport are considered, total water use in tourism is estimated to be approximately 6,575 L per guest night, or 27,800 L per person per trip (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). In addition, tourism contributes to the pollution of oceans as well as lakes, rivers, and other freshwater systems (Gössling, 2002 ; Gössling et al., 2011 ).

The clearing and conversion of land is central for tourism development, and in many cases, the land used for tourism includes roads, airports, railways, accommodations, trails, pedestrian walks, shopping areas, parking areas, campgrounds, vacation homes, golf courses, marinas, ski resorts, and indirect land use for food production, disposal of solid wastes, and the treatment of wastewater (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). Global land use for accommodation is estimated to be approximately 42 m 2 per bed. Total global land use for tourism is estimated to be nearly 62,000 km 2 , or 11.7 m 2 per tourist; more than half of this estimate is represented by land use for traffic infrastructure.

Tourism and hospitality have direct and indirect links to nearly all aspects of food production, preparation, and consumption because of the quantities of food consumed in tourism contexts (Gössling et al., 2011 ). Food production has significant implications for sustainable development, given the growing global demand for food. The implications include land conversion, losses to biodiversity, changes in nutrient cycling, and contributions to greenhouse emissions that are associated with global climate change (Vitousek et al., 1997 ). Global food use for tourism is estimated to be approximately 39.4 megatons 1 (Mt), about 38% than the amount of food consumed at home. This equates to approximately 1,800 grams (g) of food consumed per tourist per day.

Although tourism has been promoted as a low-impact, nonextractive option for economic development, (Gössling, 2000 ), assessments reveal that such pursuits have a significant carbon footprint, as tourism is significantly more carbon intensive than other potential areas of economic development (Lenzen et al., 2018 ). Tourism is dependent on energy, and virtually all energy use in the tourism sector is derived from fossil fuels, which contribute to global greenhouse emissions that are associated with global climate change. Energy use for tourism has been estimated to be approximately 3,575 megajoules 2 (MJ) per trip, including energy for travel and accommodations (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). A previous estimate of global carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from tourism provided values of 1.12 gigatons 3 (Gt) of CO 2 , amounting to about 3% of global CO 2 -equivalent (CO 2 e) emissions (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). However, these analyses do not cover the supply chains underpinning tourism and do not therefore represent true carbon footprints. A more complete analysis of the emissions from energy consumption necessary to sustain the tourism sector would include food and beverages, infrastructure construction and maintenance, retail, and financial services. Between 2009 and 2013 , tourism’s global carbon footprint is estimated to have increased from 3.9 to 4.5 GtCO 2 e, four times more than previously estimated, accounting for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions (Lenzen et al., 2018 ). The majority of this footprint is exerted by and within high-income countries. The rising global demand for tourism is outstripping efforts at decarbonization of tourism operations and as a result is accelerating global carbon emissions.

Social Impacts of Tourism

The social impacts of tourism have been widely studied, with an emphasis on residents’ perceptions in the host community (Sharpley, 2014 ). Case studies include research conducted in Australia (Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997 ; Gursoy et al., 2010 ; Tovar & Lockwood, 2008 ), Belize (Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2008 ), China (Gu & Ryan, 2008 ), Fiji (King et al., 1993 ), Greece (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996 ; Tsartas, 1992 ), Hungary (Rátz, 2000 ), Thailand (Huttasin, 2008 ), Turkey (Kuvan & Akan, 2005 ), the United Kingdom (Brunt & Courtney, 1999 ; Haley et al., 2005 ), and the United States (Andereck et al., 2005 ; Milman & Pizam, 1988 ), among others. The social impacts of tourism are difficult to measure, and most published studies are mainly concerned with the social impacts on the host communities rather than the impacts on the tourists themselves.

Studies of residents’ perceptions of tourism are typically conducted using household surveys. In most cases, residents recognize the economic dependence on tourism for income, and there is substantial evidence to suggest that working in or owning a business in tourism or a related industry is associated with more positive perceptions of tourism (Andereck et al., 2007 ). The perceived nature of negative effects is complex and often conveys a dislike of crowding, traffic congestion, and higher prices for basic needs (Deery et al., 2012 ). When the number of tourists far exceeds that of the resident population, negative attitudes toward tourism may manifest (Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2008 ). However, residents who recognize negative impacts may not necessarily oppose tourism development (King et al., 1993 ).

In some regions, little is known about the social and cultural impacts of tourism despite its dominance as an economic sector. Tourism is a rapidly growing sector in Cuba, and it is projected to grow at rates that exceed the average projected growth rates for the Caribbean and the world overall (Salinas et al., 2018 ). Still, even though there has been rapid tourism development in Cuba, there has been little research related to the environmental and sociocultural impacts of this tourism growth (Rutty & Richardson, 2019 ).

In some international tourism contexts, studies have found that residents are generally resentful toward tourism because it fuels inequality and exacerbates racist attitudes and discrimination (Cabezas, 2004 ; Jamal & Camargo, 2014 ; Mbaiwa, 2005 ). Other studies revealed similar narratives and recorded statements of exclusion and socioeconomic stratification (Sanchez & Adams, 2008 ). Local residents often must navigate the gaps in the racialized, gendered, and sexualized structures imposed by the global tourism industry and host-country governments (Cabezas, 2004 ).

However, during times of economic crisis, residents may develop a more permissive view as their perceptions of the costs of tourism development decrease (Garau-Vadell et al., 2018 ). This increased positive attitude is not based on an increase in the perception of positive impacts of tourism, but rather on a decrease in the perception of the negative impacts.

There is a growing body of research on Indigenous and Aboriginal tourism that emphasizes justice issues such as human rights and self-empowerment, control, and participation of traditional owners in comanagement of destinations (Jamal & Camargo, 2014 ; Ryan & Huyton, 2000 ; Whyte, 2010 ).

Sustainability of Tourism

A process or system is said to be sustainable to the extent that it is robust, resilient, and adaptive (Anderies et al., 2013 ). By most measures, the global tourism system does not meet these criteria for sustainability. Tourism is not robust in that it cannot resist threats and perturbations, such as economic shocks, public health pandemics, war, and other disruptions. Tourism is not resilient in that it does not easily recover from failures, such as natural disasters or civil unrest. Furthermore, tourism is not adaptive in that it is often unable to change in response to external conditions. One example that underscores the failure to meet all three criteria is the dependence of tourism on fossil fuels for transportation and energy, which are key inputs for tourism development. This dependence itself is not sustainable (Wheeller, 2007 ), and thus the sustainability of tourism is questionable.

Liu ( 2003 ) notes that research related to the role of tourism in sustainable development has emphasized supply-side concepts such as sustaining tourism resources and ignored the demand side, which is particularly vulnerable to social and economic shocks. Tourism is vulnerable to both localized and global shocks. Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to localized shocks include disaster vulnerability in coastal Thailand (Calgaro & Lloyd, 2008 ), bushfires in northeast Victoria in Australia (Cioccio & Michael, 2007 ), forest fires in British Columbia, Canada (Hystad & Keller, 2008 ); and outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom (Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ).

Like most other economic sectors, tourism is vulnerable to the impacts of earthquakes, particularly in areas where tourism infrastructure may not be resilient to such shocks. Numerous studies have examined the impacts of earthquake events on tourism, including studies of the aftermath of the 1997 earthquake in central Italy (Mazzocchi & Montini, 2001 ), the 1999 earthquake in Taiwan (Huan et al., 2004 ; Huang & Min, 2002 ), and the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in western Sichuan, China (Yang et al., 2011 ), among others.

Tourism is vulnerable to extreme weather events. Regional economic strength has been found to be associated with lower vulnerability to natural disasters. Kim and Marcoullier ( 2015 ) examined the vulnerability and resilience of 10 tourism-based regional economies that included U.S. national parks or protected seashores situated on the Gulf of Mexico or Atlantic Ocean coastline that were affected by several hurricanes over a 26-year period. Regions with stronger economic characteristics prior to natural disasters were found to have lower disaster losses than regions with weaker economies.

Tourism is extremely sensitive to oil spills, whatever their origin, and the volume of oil released need not be large to generate significant economic losses (Cirer-Costa, 2015 ). Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to the localized shock of an oil spill include research on the impacts of oil spills in Alaska (Coddington, 2015 ), Brazil (Ribeiro et al., 2020 ), Spain (Castanedo et al., 2009 ), affected regions in the United States along the Gulf of Mexico (Pennington-Gray et al., 2011 ; Ritchie et al., 2013 ), and the Republic of Korea (Cheong, 2012 ), among others. Future research on the vulnerability of tourist destinations to oil spills should also incorporate freshwater environments, such as lakes, rivers, and streams, where the rupture of oil pipelines is more frequent.

Significant attention has been paid to assessing the vulnerability of tourist destinations to acts of terrorism and the impacts of terrorist attacks on regional tourist economies (Liu & Pratt, 2017 ). Such studies include analyses of the impacts of terrorist attacks on three European countries, Greece, Italy, and Austria (Enders et al., 1992 ); the impact of the 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States (Goodrich, 2002 ); terrorism and tourism in Nepal (Bhattarai et al., 2005 ); vulnerability of tourism livelihoods in Bali (Baker & Coulter, 2007 ); the impact of terrorism on tourist preferences for destinations in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands (Arana & León, 2008 ); the 2011 massacres in Olso and Utøya, Norway (Wolff & Larsen, 2014 ); terrorism and political violence in Tunisia (Lanouar & Goaied, 2019 ); and the impact of terrorism on European tourism (Corbet et al., 2019 ), among others. Pizam and Fleischer ( 2002 ) studied the impact of acts of terrorism on tourism demand in Israel between May 1991 and May 2001 , and they confirmed that the frequency of acts of terrorism had caused a larger decline in international tourist arrivals than the severity of these acts. Most of these are ex post studies, and future assessments of the underlying conditions of destinations could reveal a deeper understanding of the vulnerability of tourism to terrorism.

Tourism is vulnerable to economic crisis, both local economic shocks (Okumus & Karamustafa, 2005 ; Stylidis & Terzidou, 2014 ) and global economic crisis (Papatheodorou et al., 2010 ; Smeral, 2010 ). Okumus and Karamustafa ( 2005 ) evaluated the impact of the February 2001 economic crisis in Turkey on tourism, and they found that the tourism industry was poorly prepared for the economic crisis despite having suffered previous impacts related to the Gulf War in the early 1990s, terrorism in Turkey in the 1990s, the civil war in former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, an internal economic crisis in 1994 , and two earthquakes in the northwest region of Turkey in 1999 . In a study of the attitudes and perceptions of citizens of Greece, Stylidis and Terzidou ( 2014 ) found that economic crisis is associated with increased support for tourism development, particularly out of self-interest. Economic crisis diminishes residents’ concern for environmental issues. In a study of the behavior of European tourists amid an economic crisis, Eugenio-Martin and Campos-Soria ( 2014 ) found that the probability of households cutting back on travel expenditures depends largely on the climate and economic conditions of tourists’ home countries, and households that do reduce travel spending engage in tourism closer to home.

Becken and Lennox ( 2012 ) studied the implications of a long-term increase in oil prices for tourism in New Zealand, and they estimate that a doubling of oil prices is associated with a 1.7% decrease in real gross national disposable income and a 9% reduction in the real value of tourism exports. Chatziantoniou et al. ( 2013 ) investigated the relationship among oil price shocks, tourism variables, and economic indicators in four European Mediterranean countries and found that aggregate demand oil price shocks generated a lagged effect on tourism-generated income and economic growth. Kisswani et al. ( 2020 ) examined the asymmetric effect of oil prices on tourism receipts and the sensitive susceptibility of tourism to oil price changes using nonlinear analysis. The findings document a long-run asymmetrical effect for most countries, after incorporating the structural breaks, suggesting that governments and tourism businesses and organizations should interpret oil price fluctuations cautiously.

Finally, the sustainability of tourism has been shown to be vulnerable to the outbreak of infectious diseases, including the impact of the Ebola virus on tourism in sub-Saharan Africa (Maphanga & Henama, 2019 ; Novelli et al., 2018 ) and in the United States (Cahyanto et al., 2016 ). The literature also includes studies of the impact of swine flu on tourism demand in Brunei (Haque & Haque, 2018 ), Mexico (Monterrubio, 2010 ), and the United Kingdom (Page et al., 2012 ), among others. In addition, rapid assessments of the impacts of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 have documented severe disruptions and cessations of tourism because of unprecedented global travel restrictions and widespread restrictions on public gatherings (Gössling et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020 ; Sharma & Nicolau, 2020 ). Hotels, airlines, cruise lines, and car rentals have all experienced a significant decrease globally because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the shock to the industry is significant enough to warrant concerns about the long-term outlook (Sharma & Nicolau, 2020 ). Qiu et al. ( 2020 ) estimated the social costs of the pandemic to tourism in three cities in China (Hong Kong, Guangzhou, and Wuhan), and they found that most respondents were willing to pay for risk reduction and action in responding to the pandemic crisis; there was no significant difference between residents’ willingness to pay in the three cities. Some research has emphasized how lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic can prepare global tourism for an economic transformation that is needed to mitigate the impacts of climate change (Brouder, 2020 ; Prideaux et al., 2020 ).

It is clear that tourism has contributed significantly to economic development globally, but its role in sustainable development is uncertain, contested, and potentially paradoxical. This is due, in part, to the contested nature of sustainable development itself. Tourism has been promoted as a low-impact, nonextractive option for economic development, particularly for developing countries (Gössling, 2000 ), and many countries have managed to increase their participation in the global economy through development of international tourism. Tourism development has been viewed as an important sector for investment to enhance economic growth, poverty alleviation, and food security, and the sector provides an alternative opportunity to large-scale development projects and extractive industries that contribute to emissions of pollutants and threaten biodiversity and cultural values. However, global evidence from research on the economic impacts of tourism has shown that this potential has rarely been realized (Liu, 2003 ).

The role of tourism in sustainable development has been studied extensively and with a variety of perspectives, including the conceptualization of alternative or responsible forms of tourism and the examination of economic, environmental, and social impacts of tourism development. The research has generally concluded that tourism development has contributed to sustainable development in some cases where it is demonstrated to have provided support for biodiversity conservation initiatives and livelihood development strategies. As an economic sector, tourism is considered to be labor intensive, providing opportunities for poor households to enhance their livelihood through the sale of goods and services to foreign tourists.

Nature-based tourism approaches such as ecotourism and community-based tourism have been successful at attracting tourists to parks and protected areas, and their spending provides financial support for biodiversity conservation, livelihoods, and economic growth in developing countries. Nevertheless, studies of the impacts of tourism development have documented negative environmental impacts locally in terms of land use, food and water consumption, and congestion, and globally in terms of the contribution of tourism to climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases related to transportation and other tourist activities. Studies of the social impacts of tourism have documented experiences of discrimination based on ethnicity, gender, race, sex, and national identity.

The sustainability of tourism as an economic sector has been examined in terms of its vulnerability to civil conflict, economic shocks, natural disasters, and public health pandemics. Most studies conclude that tourism may have positive impacts for regional development and environmental conservation, but there is evidence that tourism inherently generates negative environmental impacts, primarily through pollutions stemming from transportation. The regional benefits of tourism development must be considered alongside the global impacts of increased transportation and tourism participation. Global tourism has also been shown to be vulnerable to economic crises, oil price shocks, and global outbreaks of infectious diseases. Given that tourism is dependent on energy, the movement of people, and the consumption of resources, virtually all tourism activities have significant economic, environmental, and sustainable impacts. As such, the role of tourism in sustainable development is highly questionable. Future research on the role of tourism in sustainable development should focus on reducing the negative impacts of tourism development, both regionally and globally.

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1. One megatonne (Mt) is equal to 1 million (10 6 ) metric tons.

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3. One gigatonne (Gt) is equal to 1 billion (10 9 ) metric tons.

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Travel and tourism ‘fastest growing sector’ in UK

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Travel and tourism is the fastest growing sector in the UK accounting for 11.9% of all jobs, new research has revealed.

This puts the industry ahead of financial services (8.9%) and banking (3.4%), generating £231.6 billion to the nation’s GDP.

Travel and tourism is the fifth largest sector in terms of GDP contribution (11%), ahead of banking (6.1%) and automotive manufacturing (3.2%).

The launch of the World Travel & Tourism Council study coincides with the 50th anniversary of the Development in Tourism Act, which was introduced in July 1969 and saw the establishment of the British Tourist Authority and tourist boards for England, Scotland and Wales.

The aim was to give responsibility to the BTA for promoting the development of tourism to and within Great Britain, and to oversee the improvement of tourist amenities and facilities to attract both domestic and foreign visitors.

The UK is now the world’s seventh most popular tourist destination and the fourth in Europe, with almost 40 million visitors a year.

The ‘benchmarking’ study from WTTC, compared the industry’s economic impact to eight other key sectors – agriculture, mining, health, automotive manufacturing, retail, financial services, banking and construction – across 26 countries and ten world regions.

WTTC president and CEO Gloria Guevara said: “As we know and is now reaffirmed by this benchmarking research, the travel and tourism sector underpins much of UK spending and supports jobs.

“WTTC commends the UK government for recognising the clear importance of the industry as a driver of economic growth and for their strategy in spreading the benefits of the industry across the country.”

Globally, travel and tourism accounted for 10.4% – $ 8.8 trillion – of total GDP last year.

It took fifth position in terms of relative contribution to GDP among the nine sectors analysed.

The contribution was 1.4 times higher than agriculture (7.7% contribution), 1.5 times higher than banking (7.1% contribution) and automotive manufacturing (6.8% contribution) and 1.7 times higher than mining (6.0% contribution).

Meanwhile, the sector was in fourth in terms of total contribution to employment (319 million jobs, 10% of all jobs), ahead of financial services (9.1%) and health (7.4%).

One in five jobs created in the last five years were in travel and tourism, according to the WTTC.

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Coronavirus: impact on the tourism industry worldwide - statistics & facts

The impact of covid-19 on global tourism industries, how has the tourism industry changed as a result of covid-19, key insights.

Detailed statistics

Global travel and tourism expenditure 2019-2022, by type

Travel and tourism: share of global GDP 2019-2033

COVID-19: job loss in travel and tourism worldwide 2020-2022, by region

Editor’s Picks Current statistics on this topic

COVID-19: global change in international tourist arrivals 2019-2023

COVID-19: job loss in travel and tourism worldwide 2020-2022, by country

Further recommended statistics

• Basic Statistic Travel and tourism: share of global GDP 2019-2033
• Basic Statistic Global travel and tourism expenditure 2019-2022, by type
• Premium Statistic Global international tourism receipts 2006-2023
• Basic Statistic COVID-19: job loss in travel and tourism worldwide 2020-2022, by region
• Basic Statistic COVID-19: job loss in travel and tourism worldwide 2020-2022, by country

Share of travel and tourism's total contribution to GDP worldwide in 2019 and 2022, with a forecast for 2023 and 2033

Total travel and tourism spending worldwide from 2019 to 2022, by type (in trillion U.S. dollars)

Global international tourism receipts 2006-2023

International tourism receipts worldwide from 2006 to 2023 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Employment loss in travel and tourism due to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic worldwide from 2020 to 2022, by region (in millions)

Number of travel and tourism jobs lost due to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in selected countries worldwide from 2020 to 2022 (in million)

International tourist arrivals

• Premium Statistic Number of international tourist arrivals worldwide 1950-2023
• Basic Statistic Number of international tourist arrivals worldwide 2005-2023, by region
• Premium Statistic International tourist arrivals worldwide 2019-2022, by subregion
• Premium Statistic Countries with the highest number of inbound tourist arrivals worldwide 2019-2023
• Premium Statistic Change in international tourist arrivals worldwide 2020-2023, by region

Number of international tourist arrivals worldwide 1950-2023

Number of international tourist arrivals worldwide from 1950 to 2023 (in millions)

Number of international tourist arrivals worldwide 2005-2023, by region

Number of international tourist arrivals worldwide from 2005 to 2023, by region (in millions)

International tourist arrivals worldwide 2019-2022, by subregion

Number of international tourist arrivals worldwide from 2019 to 2022, by subregion (in millions)

Countries with the highest number of inbound tourist arrivals worldwide 2019-2023

Countries with the highest number of international tourist arrivals worldwide from 2019 to 2023 (in millions)

Change in international tourist arrivals worldwide 2020-2023, by region

Percentage change in international tourist arrivals worldwide from 2020 to 2023, by region

Online travel companies

• Premium Statistic Revenue of leading OTAs worldwide 2019-2023
• Premium Statistic Change in revenue of leading OTAs worldwide 2020-2022
• Premium Statistic Total visits to travel and tourism website booking.com worldwide 2021-2024
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Revenue of leading OTAs worldwide 2019-2023

Leading online travel agencies (OTAs) worldwide from 2019 to 2023, by revenue (in million U.S. dollars)

Change in revenue of leading OTAs worldwide 2020-2022

Year-over-year percentage change in revenue of leading online travel agencies (OTAs) worldwide from 2020 to 2022

Total visits to travel and tourism website booking.com worldwide 2021-2024

Estimated total number of visits to the travel and tourism website booking.com worldwide from December 2021 to March 2024 (in millions)

Total visits to travel and tourism website tripadvisor.com worldwide 2020-2024

Estimated total number of visits to the travel and tourism website tripadvisor.com worldwide from August 2020 to March 2024 (in millions)

Accommodation

• Premium Statistic Monthly hotel occupancy rates worldwide 2020-2023, by region
• Premium Statistic Monthly change in rental bookings through OTAs due to COVID-19 2020-2022
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• Premium Statistic Airbnb nights and experiences booked worldwide 2019-2023, by region

Monthly hotel occupancy rates worldwide 2020-2023, by region

Monthly hotel occupancy rates worldwide from 2020 to 2023, by region

Monthly change in rental bookings through OTAs due to COVID-19 2020-2022

Monthly change in short term rental bookings through selected leading online travel agencies (OTAs) worldwide from 2020 to 2022

Airbnb nights and experiences booked worldwide 2017-2023

Nights and experiences booked with Airbnb from 2017 to 2023 (in millions)

Airbnb nights and experiences booked worldwide 2019-2023, by region

Number of nights and experiences booked on Airbnb worldwide from 2019 to 2023 by region (in millions)

Food & drink services

• Premium Statistic Daily year-on-year impact of COVID-19 on global restaurant dining 2020-2022
• Premium Statistic Global quick service restaurant industry market size 2022-2023
• Premium Statistic Restaurant food delivery growth worldwide 2019-2020, by country
• Premium Statistic Online restaurant delivery growth worldwide 2019-2020, by country

Daily year-on-year impact of COVID-19 on global restaurant dining 2020-2022

Year-over-year daily change in seated restaurant diners due to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic worldwide from February 24, 2020 to August 1, 2022

Global quick service restaurant industry market size 2022-2023

Market size of the quick service restaurant industry worldwide in 2022 and 2023 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Restaurant food delivery growth worldwide 2019-2020, by country

Restaurant food delivery growth in selected countries worldwide between 2019 and 2020

Online restaurant delivery growth worldwide 2019-2020, by country

Digital restaurant food delivery growth in selected countries worldwide between 2019 and 2020

Virtual tourism

• Premium Statistic Global virtual tourism market value 2021-2027
• Premium Statistic Guests interested in touring hotels using VR/metaverse technology worldwide 2022
• Basic Statistic VR tourist destination prices worldwide 2021
• Premium Statistic Comparison between digital and live exhibitions by visitors worldwide 2021

Global virtual tourism market value 2021-2027

Market size of the virtual tourism industry worldwide in 2021, with a forecast for 2027 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Guests interested in touring hotels using VR/metaverse technology worldwide 2022

Share of travelers that are interested in using a virtual reality/metaverse experience to tour a hotel before booking worldwide as of 2022

VR tourist destination prices worldwide 2021

Price of selected virtual reality travel experiences worldwide as of 2021 (in U.S. dollars)

Comparison between digital and live exhibitions by visitors worldwide 2021

Opinions on virtual versus in-person exhibitions and trade shows according to visitors worldwide as of 2021

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Venice’s Tourism Fee Success, Slower Hotel Growth and New Vacation Rental Markets

Rashaad Jorden , Skift

June 7th, 2024 at 5:59 AM EDT

Today's podcast looks at Venice's tourist fee, slower growth for hotels, and new markets for vacation rentals.

Rashaad Jorden

Skift Daily Briefing Podcast

Listen to the day’s top travel stories in under four minutes every weekday.

Good morning from Skift. It’s Friday, June 7, 2024. Here’s what you need to know about the business of travel today.

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Episode Notes

Authorities in Venice believe the roughly $5 entry fee it charges visitors has benefited the city. And a top tourism official told Skift Venice could raise the amount , writes Global Tourism Reporter Dawit Habtemariam. 

Simone Venturini, the city’s deputy mayor for tourism, said the fee is part of Venice’s strategy to preserve its beauty and pivot away from being “a cheap tourism capital.” Venturini added that everything has gone smoothly since the entry fee was implemented in April. He said the city is considering hiking it to roughly $10. 

Venturini said the entry fee mainly targets local day-trippers. He also disputed the notion that the majority of Venetians object to it, stating a protest that attracted 200 people didn’t represent the views of most residents.  

Next, U.S. hotel demand growth is projected to slow down — even in the luxury sector, reports Senior Hospitality Editor Sean O’Neill.  

Data firms STR and Tourism Economics project a roughly 2% increase in average daily rates this year. That’s down from a previous estimate of 3%. STR President Amanda Hite said hotel industry figures believe there isn’t as much weekend demand for leisure as expected. 

Hite added she was surprised about the revised projection in the luxury segment. O’Neill notes the luxury sector faces greater risks due to a shift in the guest mix from leisure travelers toward more group bookings and business travelers. 

Finally, population shifts across the U.S. could drive vacation rental growth in certain markets , writes Reporter Elizabeth Casolo.

AirDNA Chief Economist Jamie Lane said at the Skift Short-Term Rental Summit this year that the “mass exodus” of people from certain locations would impact where guests stay. Lane said that would result in people vacationing in entirely different markets, with Casolo citing Texas and Florida as states that have seen population growth. 

Lane added AirDNA had identified up-and-coming hot sports for vacation rentals. The four highest-ranked destinations AirDNA listed were all in Texas. 

Presenter/Producer: Jose Marmolejos

The Daily Newsletter

Our daily coverage of the global travel industry. Written by editors and analysts from across Skift’s brands.

Have a confidential tip for Skift? Get in touch

Tags: airdna , italy , luxury hotels , skift podcast , venice

Photo credit: Tourists near St. Mark's Square in Venice, Italy. Skift

Tourism reopening spurs a growth in Visa applications - VFS Global

•The arrivals generated tourist inbound earnings of Sh353 billion representing a growth of 31.5 per cent, according to the country’s Tourism Sector Performance Report 2023.

•According to VFS this reflects enhanced efficiency and capacity during a year when tourism arrival numbers in Kenya surged by 31.5 per cent.

Outsourcing and technology services specialist for governments and diplomatic missions, VFS Global has reported a 35 per cent rise in visa applications processed globally majorly driven by opening up of tourism activities.

The firms its Integrated Sustainability Report for 2023, shows that Middle East, EU region and African markets such as Kenyan operations contributed notably to this growth.

Last year the company won seven global contracts which include the governments of the UK, Australia, Norway, Sweden, Latvia, Iceland and Austria.

According to VFS this reflects enhanced efficiency and capacity during a year when tourism arrival numbers in Kenya surged by 31.5 per cent.

Kenya witnessed a notable surge in arrival numbers from 1,483,752 in 2022 to 1,951,185 in 2023, representing an impressive growth of 31.5 per cent.

The extent of recovery in 2023 was at 95.24 per cent from the 2019 international arrival levels, this is above the pre-pandemic global recovery levels of 88 per cent.

The arrivals generated tourist inbound earnings of Sh353 billion representing a growth of 31.5 per cent, according to the country’s Tourism Sector Performance Report 2023.

The firms sustainability report shows that Visa Application Centres contributed significantly to job creation in 2023, employing a total of 10,976 individuals worldwide.

Regional employment figures include 1,429 nationals from the Middle East and North Africa region, 686 from Africa, 403 from the Americas, 1,376 from the Asia-Pacific region, 1,295 from Europe and Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries, and 3,968 from South Asia.

In terms of gender diversity, 53 percent of new hires were women, and the company maintained a balanced gender ratio of 54 percent women to 46 percent men.

On the environmental front, VFS Global achieved a 72 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 2022.

Additionally, the company increased its investments in corporate social responsibility (CSR) by 60 percent, making a significant impact through various community programs.

Its CEO, Zubin Karkaria, asserted that the company is keen on ensuring its stakeholders’ good business prowess.

“As a responsible corporate citizen, VFS Global steadfastly continued its efforts to embed sustainability into its business practices, organizational culture, and strategic goals,” said Zubin.

“Our ability to make a measurable difference every year sets us apart and underscores our commitment to enhancing value for all stakeholders in an efficient, secure, and sustainable manner,” he added.

The global travel industry saw a robust recovery in 2023, rebounding from the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Laos taps tourism potential to boost economic growth

Saturday, 08 Jun 2024

Related News

Laos local authorities warn of chemical leak into river; people warned from using water from Nga River

Human capital, green sustainability ‘key’ for laos' future economic model: report, unesco’s recognition of laos naga motif celebrated in grand style.

Tourists visiting Patuxay Park in Lao capital Vientiane. - Xinhua File

VIENTIANE: Laos' Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism organised a conference aimed at tapping tourism's potential as a key factor in driving Laos' economic growth.

The meeting, which took place in Lao capital Vientiane from Thursday (June 6) to Friday (June 7), was attended by representatives of relevant offices, provincial departments of information, culture and tourism, and tourism-related businesses.

The meeting aimed to provide participants with the opportunity to exchange points of view on the current state of tourism in the country and how to promote growth in the tourism sector, the local Pasaxon newspaper reported on Friday.

Several topics were discussed at the conference including tourism development and management promotion, penetration of Lao tourism products into overseas markets, and personnel development in the tourism sector.

The meeting also discussed the development of tourist sites, tourism products, and facilities in line with sustainable trends and regional and international standards. - Xinhua/ANN

Tags / Keywords: Laos , tourism , potential , Ministry of Information , Culture and Tourism , conference , economic growth

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15 Eyelash Growth Serums, Recommended by Eye Doctors

We tested dozens of the top-rated lash serums to find the ones that actually work

Every product on this page was chosen by a Harper's BAZAAR editor. We may earn commission on some of the items you choose to buy.

In all cases, one of the best eyelash serums can help encourage new growth. We tested dozens of the best lash serums on the market to narrow down the list below, but don’t just take our word for it. Ahead, 15 eyelash growth serums that are recommended by eye doctors and beauty editors alike.

Shop the Best Eyelash Serums

Best Overall

Bausch + lomb lumify eye illuminations nourishing lash & brow serum.

Best for Sensitive Eyes

Twenty/twenty beauty get growing lash & brow serum.

The Ordinary Multi-Peptide Lash and Brow Serum

Bausch + lomb lumify eye illuminations nourishing lash & brow serum.

Lumify—the brand best known for its brightening eye drops —makes a lash and brow serum that eye doctors, including Manhattan-based optometrist Jennifer Tsai , can get behind. The ingredient list is prostaglandin-free and includes peptides, hyaluronic acid, and biotin, which condition the lashes without irritation.

One satisfied customer says: “I have long lashes, but I usually lose a few when curling them and it takes a while [for them] to grow back. But with this serum, I noticed my eyelashes grow faster and a bit thicker too.” — Dianna

twenty/twenty beauty Get Growing Lash & Brow Serum

Developed and tested by an ophthalmologist, this lash and brow serum is safe for sensitive skin and eyes. It’s free of prostaglandin, parabens, phthalates, silicones, and fragrance. Plus, a note on packaging design: Unlike a commonplace spoolie applicator, the serum’s hygienic pump prevents transmission of bacteria caused by double-dipping into a tube.

One satisfied customer says: “Only 3 all-natural ingredients and made by an eye doctor so I can trust it isn’t going to cause any strange reactions. I’ve been loving it so, far and it hasn’t irritated my sensitive skin. Best of all my lashes are coming back!!” — Sophia

At just $15, the Ordinary’s Multi-Peptide Lash and Brow Serum is packed with 11 active ingredients, including four peptide complexes that help nourish and condition the lashes for optimal growth. You can use it twice daily to enhance the density and overall appearance of your lashes (and eyebrows too).

One satisfied customer says : “Second time buying the product. It [works] well for me; the downside is that it takes time to see results so just be patient.” — Star

Vichy Laboratoires LiftActiv Serum 10

A two-in-one eye product, this serum treats fine lines around the eye and fortifies lashes using a blend of ceramides and hyaluronic acid.

One satisfied customer says : “Absolute game changer for tired eyes and lashes! My lashes grew exponentially with this product — to the point that I cannot believe my eyes! My dark circles also improved, but the improvement on the lashes is what sells this product for me.” — Emily

RevitaLash Cosmetics Advanced Eyelash Conditioner

RevitaLash is one of the more popular OTC lash serums on the market, and for good reason. Tsai likes it because it contains biotin, peptides, and amino acids, which help condition lashes while protecting them against breakage.

One satisfied customer says: “The best. I have bought this multiple times and will never try another brand. I get compliments on my eyelashes every day.” — Maxine

Beauty Pie Lash Fuel XL Super-Advanced Peptide Serum

Maryam Zamani , a board-certified consultant oculoplastic surgeon, says one of her favorite eyelash growth serums is this one from Beauty Pie. It contains a lipo-oligopeptide that enhances the lashes in length and fullness.

One satisfied customer says: “I don’t normally leave a review after two weeks but this is a ‘wow’ product for people with short stubborn lashes. Everyone asks if I have had a few false lashes put in!” —Leesa

UKLash Eyelash Serum

Zamani also includes UKLash’s serum among her favorites, and Marie Claire and Cosmopolitan have ranked it as a top lash serum as well. Beyond biotin and peptides, the formula contains myristoyl pentapeptide-17, an amino acid peptide known for stimulating keratin (a protein that helps form hair). While the brand is based in the United Kingdom, as the name suggests, this lash serum can be shipped to customers in the United States.

One satisfied customer says: “As I went through menopause, my eyelashes not only became more sparse, I found myself losing individual lashes to the point of having bald spots on my lids. I tried a few different serums, but Uklash had the best effect, and it feels soothing on my eyes. My eyelashes are thick and long again.” —Sheri

Shiseido Full Lash Serum

For those looking to treat lashes and brows in tandem, Zamani recommends this serum by Shiseido. The formula is dermatologist-tested and contains arginine, which helps restore the condition of lashes and brows.

One satisfied customer says: “I have tried eight to ten lash serums this year. This one is the overall winner. The application wand is not thin but a sponge, which allows for wider coverage.” —Cynthia

Obagi Medical Nu-Cil Eyelash Enhancing Serum

This serum from Obagi Medical contains the brand’s trademarked Nouri-Plex Technology, a combination of targeted ingredients designed to address thinning and sparse eyelashes. The formula contains strengthening biotin, a nourishing proprietary lipid compound, sodium hyaluronate to attract and retain water, and panthenol (a.k.a. vitamin B 5 ) for lash conditioning.

One satisfied customer says: “My esthetician told me about Obagi’s serum. It’s a bit pricey but it works! I’ve used other serums, including Latisse, and I think this works better than anything else I’ve tried. My friend thought I had gotten lash extensions.” — Kathy

Augustinus Bader The Eyebrow and Lash Enhancing Serum

This eyebrow- and eyelash-enhancing serum from Augustinus Bader offers a two-in-one solution for achieving fuller brows and lashes. Beyond encouraging keratin production and locking in moisture to support a healthy hair follicle, the formula also layers well under makeup, both mascara and eyebrow gel.

One satisfied customer says : “I have been using this product for a couple [of] months now and am very impressed with the regrowth and growth of my lashes and brows. Most days I don’t use brow filler or mascara [because] I don’t need it. It took about two weeks to start seeing a difference, but it’s noticeable.” — Katrinia

Kosas GrowPotion Fluffy Brow + Lash Boosting Serum

Kosas, the brand behind the popular Revealer Concealer and Air Brow Gel , recently launched a brow- and lash-boosting serum that is garnering rave reviews. Experts appreciate that the formula is hypoallergenic, ophthalmologist-tested, safe for sensitive eyes, and prostaglandin-free. It’s made with peptides, hyaluronic acid, and vegan keratin, and our editors love the unique applicator that makes putting it on a breeze.

One satisfied customer says: “I’ve been using this product for two weeks now and it’s been great. I have a medical condition [where] my hair—including my eyebrows and eyelashes—falls out. I am now trying to grow them back. It’s been years searching for something that works, I found this serum and it does magic.” — Sonjia

Benefit Whoop Lash

Beloved lash and eyebrow brand Benefit recently launched an eyelash-enhancing serum formulated without prostaglandin or its derivatives. Instead, it contains biotin and provitamin B 5 , plus hibiscus flower and safflower extracts. In a clinical trial, 95 percent of participants self-reported that their lashes looked fuller at just six weeks with nightly use.

One satisfied customer says: “This is a great lash serum! My lashes had been falling out due to constant use of false lashes so I needed something to help me grow them back. I’ve been using this serum for many weeks now and my lashes look much fuller and darker. I also notice a difference in length too.” — Kimberly

Olaplex Lashbond Building Serum

The same bond-building technology that powers Olaplex’s iconic hair products is infused in the Lashbond Serum to keep lashes healthy and strong. It’s made with a proprietary peptide complex, plus hydrating hyaluronic acid and biotin. The best part? Results will start to show in just two weeks.

One satisfied customer says: “I’ve tried most of the lash serums available. This product is as good, if not better than other lash serums I’ve tried. I have very brittle and sparse lashes and this product seems to strengthen my lashes. I will be re-ordering it.” — Susan

Vegamour Gro Lash Serum

Vegamour’s volumizing Gro Lash Serum won an Oprah Daily Editor’s Choice Award in 2023 for its ability to lengthen and volumize lashes with exclusively vegan ingredients, like phytoactives.

One satisfied customer says: “I had no bottom lashes until I started using GRO lash serum. It took a little while but I can see my lashes coming in. So excited.” — Katharine

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Environmental sustainability and tourism growth: convergence or compensation?

• Open access
• Published: 29 May 2024

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• Viviana Torres-Díaz 1 , 2 ,
• María de la Cruz del Río-Rama   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9396-9341 3 ,
• José Álvarez-García 4 &
• Biagio Simonetti 5 , 6 , 7  

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In addition to the socio-economic advantages, tourism has been proven to be one of the most important sectors with adverse environmental effects. Therefore, this study examines the relationship between tourism and environmental sustainability by using a panel data from 32 countries in Latin America and the European Union for the period 2000–2019. Several techniques of cointegration and convergence of clusters are used to meet this objective. The empirical results show that on average, tourism growth has a negative impact on the environment in the two groups of countries, which could be attributed to the heterogeneity of the level of regional tourism development. On the other hand, the convergence of tourism growth and environmental sustainability is evident at different adjustment speeds in the different sample panels. It generates empirical evidence on whether the current expansion of the tourism sector in Latin American and European countries entails significant environmental externalities by using the ecological footprint variable as an indicator of environmental sustainability and foreign tourist arrivals as an economic indicator.

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1 Introduction

Over the past decades, countries have experienced rapid economic growth around the world (Koengkan et al. 2019 ). In line with the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), more than 900 million tourists made international trips during the year 2022, twice as many as in 2021. This figure is 63% of the pre-pandemic level. In general, the number of international tourists has increased in all regions of the world. Europe, with 585 million arrivals in 2022, has reached almost 80% of pre-pandemic levels. Africa and North, Central and South America reached about 65% of pre-pandemic visitor levels (UNWTO 2023 ).

Tourism is one of the important factors that can affect the environmental and economic situation of any economy (Ozturk et al. 2023 ). Thus, tourism and economic growth have been found to go hand in hand, especially in tourist destinations (Adedoyin et al. 2021 ). In addition, tourism transfers economic income from developed to developing countries (Danish and Wang 2018 ). However, despite the benefits that tourism provides, it also affects environmental quality, as increased international tourism not only stimulates economic growth, but also increases energy consumption (Bojanic and Warnick 2020 ; Danish and Wang 2018 ) and the use of products derived from the extraction of natural resources (Robaina-Alves et al. 2016 ).

Therefore, most of the empirical and theoretical studies have argued that tourism contributes significantly to environmental degradation (Shahbaz et al. 2021 ; Danish and Wang 2018 ), so this relationship has been studied from two perspectives. The first perspective focuses on testing the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis, which is an inverted U-shaped relationship between pollutants and economic growth. Based on Kuznets ( 1955 ), this theory was put forth by scholars Grossman and Krueger ( 1991 ). According to this idea, economic expansion affects environmental degradation as measured by CO 2 emissions to a point when it becomes sustainable and has a negative influence (Arbulú et al. 2015 ; Ozturk et al. 2016 ; Mikayilov et al. 2019 ; Anser et al. 2020 ; Fethi and Senyucel 2021 ; Porto and Ciaschi 2021 ; Gao et al. 2021 ). The second perspective includes research that examines the relationship between tourism growth and environmental degradation (De Vita et al. 2015 ; Zaman et al. 2016 ; Pablo-Romero et al. 2019 ; Alizadeh 2020 ; Anser et al. 2020 ).

Most of these studies (Kusumawardani and Dewi 2020 ; Rahman 2020 ; Mohammed et al. 2015 ; Ozturk and Al-Mulali 2015 ; Galeotti et al. 2006 ) have analyzed the relationship between tourism growth and environmental degradation based on the variables of energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. According to Ozturk et al. ( 2023 ), the empirical findings point to a mix of favorable and unfavorable effects of visitor arrivals and CO 2 emissions in the majority of tourist locations. Environmental degradation has been shown to be a multifaceted phenomenon with a variety of indicators, which requires a comprehensive assessment of the state of the environment (Wackernagel and Rees 1998 ; Saqib and Benhmad 2021a , b ; Pulido-Fernández et al. 2019 ).

In this regard, some studies (Saqib and Benhmad 2021a , b ; Satrovic and Adedoyin 2022 ) have found that the ecological footprint is a more accurate tool for measuring and visualizing the resources that sustain the planet because it considers how dependent humans are on the environment in order support a lifestyle (Kyara et al. 2022 ; Saqib and Benhmad 2021a , b ; Elshimy and El-Aasar 2020 ; Figge et al. 2017 ; Ozturk et al. 2016 ; Rojas-Downing et al. 2018 ). In line with this, Gössling ( 2000 ) points out that the relationship between tourism expansion and carbon emissions, as well as evidence of the detrimental effects of fossil fuels used in the industry on the environment are some aspects of the impact of tourism growth on the ecological footprint.

As a result, the main objective of this study is to assess how tourism growth and environmental sustainability in Latin America and the European Union are related. Due to the lack of comprehensive statistical data for all the countries in the region and for all the years, the statistical data from 14 Latin American countries and 18 European countries were used between 2000 and 2019. In order to do this, the present research used convergence cluster analysis, generalized least squares (DOSL), cointegration analysis using unit root and causality tests to examine the relationship between the ecological footprint (global hectares per capita) and the number of international tourist arrivals.

In addition, this study also contributes two important elements to the literature on tourism. First, it generates empirical evidence on whether the current expansion of the tourism sector in Latin American and European countries entails significant environmental externalities by using the ecological footprint variable as an indicator of environmental sustainability and foreign tourist arrivals as an economic indicator. Second, the research ranks nations based on the likelihood that their environmental performance will be covered, considering the fact that environmental sustainability can be influenced by tourism growth. To do this, the convergence club method presented by Phillips and Su ( 2007 ) is used, which finds three convergence groups with the potential for the final two groups to merge into a single club.

Following this introduction, the study will be divided into the following sections: Sect.  2 presents the bibliographical and empirical review on the topic. In Sect.  3 , two sections are presented: in the first section, the description of the data and bibliographical sources; and, in the second section, the methodologies used are described. Section  4 shows the results obtained, while Sect.  5 provides a discussion of the findings. The last section presents the conclusions obtained.

2 Theoretical framework

There is a significant and growing interest in the connection between tourism and the environment within the analysis of the literature and empirical evidence, which suggests that this relationship can be studied from two relevant aspects. The first aspect explores the causal relationship of tourism on environmental degradation. For example, Usman et al. ( 2021 ) investigate the causal link in Asian countries and find that tourism is what is influencing the region’s environmental degradation. On the other hand, Shi et al. ( 2020 ) find a two-way causal relationship in high-income economies around the world. Other research, such as that by Lee and Brahmasrene ( 2013 ) and de Vita et al. ( 2015 ) explores this connection along with electrical energy use, demonstrating the beneficial impact of tourism on environmental degradation; while Zaman et al. ( 2016 ) determine an inverse relationship between the variables considered for an analysis in three regions of the world. According to Lv and Xu ( 2023 ), tourism always has a major detrimental impact on environmental performance, meaning that environmental deterioration will inevitably come from tourism, regardless of how developed the industry is. On the other hand, tourism will comparatively have less of an impact on environmental performance after it reaches a certain level of development.

The second aspect examines whether the EKC hypothesis caused by tourism actually exists. Kuznets ( 1955 ) investigated “the inverted U-shaped relationship between income inequality and per capita income”. Subsequently, the pioneering study by Grossman and Krueger ( 1991 ) analyzed the connection between air quality and income growth. This study provided evidence supporting the Kuznets curve. Numerous empirical studies that explored and validated the EKC hypothesis in global tourism have been conducted in recent years (Ozturk et al. 2016 ; Fethi and Senyucel 2021 ) by groups of countries (Anser et al. 2020 ; Adedoyin et al. 2021 ), in Latin America (Pablo-Romero et al. 2019 ; Ochoa-Moreno et al. 2022 ) and Europe (Arbulú et al. 2015 ; Saqib and Benhmad 2021a , b ). In this same line, Ekonomou and Halkos ( 2023 ) processes regression tests of contemporary panels that consider possible structural ruptures and phenomena of cross-dependence in panel data. Empirical findings confirm the EKC hypothesis, while business tourism expenses, capital investment expenses and domestic travel and tourism consumption have a negative impact on greenhouse gas emissions.

In order to demonstrate the link between environmental degradation and tourism growth in many industrialized and emerging economies, Table  1 aggregates empirical studies. However, the results differ in terms of policy implications, methods and geographical location. In addition, there are limited studies in both the Latin American region (Alizadeh 2020 ; Porto and Ciaschi 2021 ; Ochoa-Moreno et al. 2022 ), as well as in the application of the ecological footprint variable as a more comprehensive indicator of environmental degradation (Kyara et al. 2022 ; Saqib and Benhmad 2021a , b ; Elshimy and El-Aasar 2020 ; Figge et al. 2017 ; Ozturk et al. 2016 ; Rojas-Downing et al. 2018 ).

It is significant to highlight that the above examines the EKC hypothesis using only one indicator of environmental pollution, namely carbon dioxide emissions, and is restricted to a one-dimensional consumption-based study. In this regard, Wackernagel and Rees ( 1998 ) state that environmental degradation is a multidimensional phenomenon and is represented by several indicators, not only as a result of ongoing carbon emissions, but also of the loss of fish species, reduction of grazing land and reduction of crops (Global Footprint Network 2021 ). For example, according to Ehigiamusoe et al. ( 2023 ), the ecological footprint and carbon emissions reflect various aspects of environmental degradation highlighting the imperative for nations to take into account the interaction between globalization and tourism in their effort to ensure environmental sustainability.

In addition, because the biocapacity available is ignored, it restricts our knowledge of the dynamics of environmental stresses. According to Destek and Sarkodie ( 2019 ), the biocapacity of a nation has a substantial impact on the outcome of the EKC hypothesis. In line with this, Khan et al. ( 2019 ) found decreasing forest cover has a variety of negative effects, such as droughts, unpredictable rainfall and flash floods. In order to reduce climate change and its effects, it is crucial to analyze the ecological footprint of growing economies (Destek and Sarkodie 2019 ).

On the other hand, regarding the methodology implemented in several of the studies presented in this section, the relationship between tourism and the environment is analyzed mainly based on some common econometric techniques. However, this research seeks to broaden the analysis of the relationship from convergence, alluding to the idea that over time, the per capita production of all economies will converge (Du 2017 ), adapting and expanding it to tourism and sustainability, based on the study by Simo-Kengne ( 2022 ), who builds a tourism sustainability index and analyzes the convergence of tourism growth and environmental sustainability in 148 countries for the period from 2006 to 2016.

A number of studies (Baumol 1986 ; Bernard and Durlauf 1995 ; Barro and Sala-I-Martin 1997 ; Lee et al. 1997 ; Luginbuhl and Koopman 2004 ) have helped to establish techniques for convergence testing and to empirically investigate the convergence hypothesis in various countries and areas. Convergence analysis has recently been used to examine a variety of different topics, including the cost of living (Phillips and Sul 2007 ), carbon dioxide emissions (Panopoulou and Pantelidis 2009 ), eco-efficiency (Camarero et al. 2013 ), housing prices (Montanés and Olmos 2013), corporate taxation (Regis et al. 2015 ), etc.

Using a non-linear time-varying component model, Phillips and Sul ( 2007 ) suggested a unique method (called the “log t” regression test) to evaluate the convergence hypothesis. The following are the benefits of the suggested strategy: First, it considers the diverse behavior of agents and their evolution. Second, the proposed test is robust to the stationarity property of the series, since it does not make any specific assumptions regarding trend stationarity or stochastic non-stationarity. Subsequently, Phillips and Sul ( 2007 ) demonstrated certain flaws in conventional convergence tests for economic development. Due to missing variables and endogeneity problems, the Solow regression estimate enhanced under transient heterogeneity, for instance, is biased and inconsistent. Due to the fact that the presence of a unit root in the series differential does not always imply divergence, conventional cointegration tests frequently lack the sensitivity required to detect asymptotic motion.

The potential existence of convergence clubs is another recurring concern in convergence analysis. Traditional studies generally divide all participants into subgroups based on some previous knowledge (e.g., geographical region, institution), and then test the convergence hypothesis for each subgroup separately. A new algorithm was created by Phillips and Sul ( 2007 ) to locate subgroups of convergence in clusters. The algorithm developed is a data-based approach that does not separate samples ex ante. Some typical models are compatible with the relative transition parameter method presented by Phillips and Sul ( 2007 ) to characterize individual variations. To put people into groups with comparable transition paths, it can be used as a universal panel approach.

In this regard, the present research aims to fill the gaps identified in the aforementioned bibliography. Firstly, by expanding the analysis of the convergence of the relationship between tourism growth and environmental sustainability. Secondly, a proxy for environmental degradation for the Latin American and European regions using new indicators and with more comprehensive dimensions.

3 Methodology

The data used in this study were taken from the World Bank (2022) and Global Footprint Network ( 2021 ). The variables extracted are the ecological footprint (ECO), which serves as the dependent variable in this study, and the number of international arrivals (TUR), which serves as the independent variable. This study covers 32 countries (Latin America, 14 and the European Union, 18) during the period 2000–2019. With 640 observations over the 20-year period and 32 countries, the variables provide a fully balanced panel over the 20-year period (t = 1, 2, …, 20), and 32 countries (i = 1, 2, …, 32).

Within countries, measured in global hectares per person, the ecological footprint is more stable than between them. Within countries, the standard deviation (SD) is 0.33, and between countries, it is 1.47. Similarly, the within-country variation in tourist revenues (log) (TUR) is lower than between countries. In comparison to the standard deviation across countries, which is 0.58, the standard deviation within countries is 0.32 (Table  2 ).

The annual evolution on average of the ecological footprint and the arrival of international tourists for Latin American countries can be observed in Fig.  1 . The trend of the dependent variable is constant, i.e., the ecological footprint is constant over the length of the study period in the sample of Latin American countries; while the independent variable is positive, i.e., it shows a constant increase in the study period (Table  3 ).

Average ecological footprint and tourist arrivals in 14 Latin American countries

Figure  2 shows the average annual changes in the ecological footprint and the number of foreign visitors for the European Union member states. As can be seen, the independent variable has a positive trend throughout the study period and the dependent variable has a negative trend, which means that the ecological footprint in the sample of European countries has maintained an average decrease.

Average ecological footprint and tourist arrivals in 18 European Union countries

Over time you can see how Latin American countries converge in terms of sustainability and tourism growth; Meanwhile, the countries of the European Union diverge in terms of tourism and environmental sustainability, especially in the last years of the study; However, this differs depending on the macroeconomic conditions of each country; this is expanded upon in the results and discussion section once the cluster convergence method has been applied.

3.2 Methodology

The empirical research follows a four-step process in line with the research objective of examining the convergence and interaction between the ecological footprint and international tourism growth in a panel of 32 countries from 2000 to 2019. The stationarity of the variables under study is first verified as a prerequisite in the first phase. The cointegration test is used in the second phase to assess whether there is stationarity between the variables under study in the long run. The third phase consists of estimating the fictitious cointegration connection in order to describe its dynamics, including how quickly it adjusts to long-term equilibrium and the short- and long-term effects. The causality analysis that comes at the end of this process, which considers the direction of the effects and any potential externalities to the research variables, is important for the creation of policy implications. The connection between tourism and environmental impact can be expressed as follows:

If the logarithm of tourism is considered in Eq.  1 , it is formulated as follows:

The ecological footprint of country \(i\) as a whole during period \(t\) is represented by log \({(ECO)}_{i,t}\) , the logarithm of tourism during period \(t\) is represented by \(\log (TUR)_{i,t}\) , and the error term is represented by \(\varepsilon_{i,t}\) . The results at this stage are interesting because they show the direction and strength of the effect of the relationship between independent and dependent variables.

The unit root test is used to check if the series are stationary—i.e., if there is no trend effect—prior to the cointegration analysis. Levin, Lin, and Chu-LLC and Im, Pesaran, and Shin-IPS, both suggested by Levin et al. ( 2002 ) and Im et al. ( 2003 ), were the tests used. The Fisher-type test based on the ADF test (Dickey and Fuller 1981 ) and the Fisher-type test based on the PP test were also used in response to Maddala and Wu ( 1999 ), who suggested using a simpler non-parametric unit root test. This equation was used to estimate these tests:

where ∆ is the first difference operator, \({X}_{i,t}\) is the series for a member of panel (country) i during the period (i = 1, 2, … N); (t = 1, 2, … T), \({p}_{i}\) indicates the number of lags in the ADF regression, and the error term \({\varepsilon }_{i,t}\) is assumed to be independently distributed random variables and normal for all i and t mean zero and finite heterogeneous variance.

The following stage tested for long-term equilibrium between the variables under study using cointegration techniques (Pedroni 1999 , 2004 ). The panel series are compared to see if there is a long-term link by using the Pedroni ( 1999 , 2004 ) cointegration test. The panel v statistic, panel rho statistic, panel PP statistic, panel ADF statistic, and the panel statistic—group rho, group PP statistic, and group ADF statistic are all calculated using the regression of Eq. ( 3 ) in the Pedroni cointegration test (Pedroni 1999 , 2004 ):

In addition, a short-term equilibrium based on error correction models (ECVM) is present (Westerlund 2007 ). The null hypothesis of no cointegration versus cointegration between the variables used is considered at the regional level. As opposed to residual dynamics, this demonstrates structural dynamics, hence there are no restrictions on any common element. On the other hand, the error correction model developed by Westerlund in 2007 is denoted by the following notation and it is assumed that all variables are integrated in order 1 or I (1):

where d t  = (1 − t) contains the deterministic components and θ t  = (1 − t) is the vector of unknown coefficients to be estimated.

As indicated by Dumitrescu and Hurlin ( 2012 ), the Granger non-causality approach was used after calculating the equilibrium connection to take into consideration panel data heterogeneity problems. In the situation of imbalanced and heterogeneous data, the Dumitrescu-Hurlin (DH) test is a modified version of the Granger causality test that is more lenient for T < N and T > N. Equation ( 6 ) is used in the DH test:

where \({\varphi }_{i}\) is the intercept of the slope, \({\gamma }_{i}\) and \({\theta }_{i}\) are the slope coefficients, ε is the error term, and k is the number of lag lengths.

In order to investigate the presence of convergence clubs according to the Phillips and Sul ( 2007 ) clustering procedure, the following steps are implemented:

(Cross section last observation ordering): Sort units in descending order according to the last panel observation of the period;

(Core group formation): Run the log-t regression for the first k units (2 < k < N) maximizing k under the condition that t-value is >−1.65. In other words, chose the core group size \({k}^{*}\) as follows:

If the condition tk > −1.65 does not hold for k = 2 (the first two units), drop the first unit and repeat the same procedure. If tk > −1.65 does not hold for any units chosen, the whole panel diverges.

The fixed-effects and random-effects models were compared using the Hausman test ( 1978 ). As a result, for each panel, the model that best fitted the test data was chosen. The modified Wald test and the Wooldridge ( 1991 ) test were also used to test for heteroscedasticity and to identify autocorrelation in the panel, highlighting the need to estimate the parameters of Eq. ( 2 ) using generalized least squares (GLS) for panel data (Wooldridge 2004 ). The results are shown for the two groups of countries (Table  4 ).

Next, the non-stationarity of the series is confirmed using unit root tests for panel data. Three tests, those of Levin et al. ( 2002 ) and Im et al. ( 2003 ), known respectively as LLC and IPS tests in the empirical literature on panel data, were applied to confirm the reliability of the findings. Comparisons were made between the results of these tests and those produced by Maddala and Wu ( 1999 ). Both with and without the effects of time were considered in the testing. According to the findings in Table  5 , the series show an order of integration (1). The existence of long-term and short-term cointegration vectors between the variables is confirmed in the following step of this research.

Pedroni ( 1999 , 2004 ) developed the cointegration test in heterogeneous panels, which allows to merge cross-sectional dependence with various individual effects, to determine the presence of a long-term equilibrium. This analytical framework, which incorporates seven repressors based on seven residual-based statistics, enables cointegration tests to be run in both heterogeneous and homogeneous panels.

The results of the seven statistics used by Pedroni ( 1999 , 2004 ) are shown in Table  6 . With varying degrees of significance, the majority of the statistics for each set of countries reject the null hypothesis of no cointegration. As a result, these findings suggest that throughout the years 2000–2019 in the groupings of countries, tourism and the ecological footprint have moved together and simultaneously.

In addition, the short-run equilibrium was calculated using an error correction model (ECVM) for panel data created by Westerlund ( 2007 ). If there is a short-run equilibrium, this implies that changes in tourism revenues will quickly result in changes in the ecological footprint. According to the data compiled in Table  7 , each group of countries is in short-term equilibrium.

Granger-type causality of the variables was established using the formalization created by (Dumitrescu and Hurlin 2012 ). In both country groupings, it was found that there are causal connections that stem from TUR → ECO (gha). In other words, changes in the number of visitors will have an impact on the ecological footprint on average in both European and Latin American countries. When considering the direction of the effects and their potential externalities to the research variables, these causal analyses are crucial for the creation of policy implications (see Table  8 ).

To do this, the Phillips and Sul ( 2007 ) proposed convergence club technique is used, which finds three convergence clusters with the possibility of the two final clusters combining to form a single club. The convergence club hypothesis, which holds that countries moving from a point of environmental imbalance to their club-specific steady state trajectory belong to the same cluster, is where the three mega clubs in Table  9 come from.

Table 9 shows that there are three clubs and three divergent units in club 4 for Latin America. It lists the number of units (countries) covered for each club, as well as the beta coefficient of the log-t test and the value of the t-statistic. Since the t-value for clubs 1 and 2 is less than −1.65, the null hypothesis of convergence is rejected at the 5% level; however, the hypothesis is not rejected for club 3.

On the other hand, two clubs representing 9 and 4 countries, respectively, are shown for the 18 countries that make up the European Union, along with 5 divergent units in club 3. Given that the t-value in the two established clubs is less than −1.65 in this case, the null hypothesis of convergence is rejected at the 5% level.

The results in Fig.  3 a, b demonstrate graphically that the economies of Europe and Latin America are not close to reaching their stationary states. In addition, the last graph of each section (a) and b)) shows the comparison between the average transitory behavior of each club, where it can be more clearly identified that the path of the countries in both regions has a different pattern.

Transition paths within each convergence club in the 14 Latin American countries and transition paths within each convergence club in the 18 European Union countries

5 Discussion

In the previous section, the results of the estimated GLS are presented, which allowed to establish the relationship of the ecological footprint based on the logarithm of international tourist arrivals, showing a negative effect on the panel of Latin America and Europe. In other words, as tourism increases, it has a positive and significant effect on the deterioration of the ecological footprint in both regions. These results are similar to those found by authors such as Porto and Ciaschi ( 2021 ) and Arbulú et al. ( 2015 ), who by using generalized least squares verified that tourism activity causes an increase in environmental degradation, measured through carbon emissions for 18 Latin American and 32 European countries. This suggests that the non-linear impact of tourism on the environmental degradation of countries is not sustainable as tourism increases, so efforts to mitigate environmental degradation from tourism must be implemented (Simo-Kengne 2022 ).

Both the existence of short-term (Westerlund 2007 ) and long-term equilibrium (Pedroni 1999 , 2004 ) have been tested using the approach. Similar methodological techniques are used by studies such as Ochoa-Moreno et al. ( 2022 ), Ghosh et al. ( 2022 ), and Saqib and Benhmad ( 2020 ) to establish equilibrium correlations in various study samples. The findings show that during the period 2000–2019, tourism growth and the ecological footprint in global hectares per capita have a combined and synchronous movement in both sets of countries. This is in line with Saqib and Benhmad’s ( 2020 ) hypothesis that the dynamics in developing countries affects how these variables are balanced. This is because the tourism industry generates significant economic advantages, while also contributing to an increase in environmental degradation. Due to the fact that these countries have not yet transitioned from traditional energy sources to more cutting-edge and environmentally friendly technology in tourism, the host country will suffer.

On the one hand, Granger’s causality (Dumitrescu and Hurlin 2012 ) showed that the ecological footprint and growth of tourism in both categories of countries had mutual causal links. In other words, the extraction and exploitation of natural resources is accelerated by the economic growth of industrialized economies, which reduces the biocapacity of the environment and increases the ecological footprint (Panayotou 1993 ). This finding is comparable to those of Destek and Asumadu ( 2018 ) and Saqib and Benhmad ( 2020 ), which found a two-way causal link. On the other hand, Ghosh et al. ( 2022 ) find a two-way causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions, tourism and ecological footprint in the G-7 countries. Ozturk et al. ( 2023 ) who use a unique technique through quantum-in-quantum regression and Granger causality and suggest a combination of positive and negative effects of tourist arrivals and CO 2 emissions at most tourist destinations. Moreover, Ekonomou and Halkos ( 2023 ) by applying Granger’s non-causality tests to a eurozone data panel suggest that all Granger variables cause greenhouse gas emissions.

In addition, the convergence analysis in both regions indicates that the sample of countries selected for this study do not have convergence in environmental terms, i.e., they do not converge towards the stationary point of each convergence club created from the Phillips cluster procedure (Philips and Sul 2007 , 2009 ). These findings contrast with those made by Simo-Kengne ( 2022 ) for a sample of 148 countries, who found that the convergence of tourism growth and environmental well-being tends to adjust at varying rates depending on the sample panels. Similarly, research by Phillips and Sul ( 2007 ) found that the relative cost of living in the 19 major American metropolises does not appear to converge over time, in addition to providing a new mechanism to model and analyze the behavior of the economic transition in the presence of common growth characteristics.

6 Conclusions and political implications

The environment is a resource and an opportunity, as well as a constraint for tourism. As a result, while engaging in tourism activities might help the environment to remain sustainable, it can also worsen its condition. The overall impact depends on the nature of tourism, as well as on contextual factors like the development of technology, the level of environmental awareness, and society’s lifestyle (Pigram 1980). Thus, the aim of the study is to investigate the connection between tourism growth and the ecological footprint in 14 Latin American and 18 European countries. To find the convergence of tourism growth and environmental sustainability, the annual period between 2000 and 2019 is examined using panel cointegration techniques and the clustering procedure.

The study findings support the notion that tourism development and environmental sustainability are mutually exclusive, since increasing biocapacity has a detrimental impact on environmental sustainability. Similarly, Danish et al. ( 2019 ), Adedoyin et al. ( 2021 ), and Chu et al. ( 2017 ), all reach the conclusion that decreasing biocapacity in Beijing, Tianjin, and Heibin is what leads to ecological improvement. These studies support the finding of Danish et al. In addition, increased tourism-related activities, globalization and economic production can all have a negative impact on the environment, as demonstrated by the research of Nathaniel ( 2021 c), who found that as tourism grows, so does energy consumption, which in turn causes the release of toxic chemicals that degrade the quality of the environment.

The current study adds important elements to the analysis of the literature on the growth of tourism and the impact on the environment, making important methodological contributions by using the ecological footprint variable as an indicator of sustainability, as well as the convergence club method presented by Phillips and Su ( 2007 ) to determine the convergence of tourist and environmental sustainability. However, some theoretical limitations have been presented, such as the lack of information for all countries in the Latin American region and the European Union; and empirical, there are limited studies examining the relationship or impact of tourism growth and ecological footprint as an indicator of environmental sustainability.

From the political point of view, it is imperative that nations take decisions and do things to achieve environmental sustainability. There are two ways to fulfill this commitment, which will ensure a smaller ecological footprint and a cleaner environment. First, it is suggested that governments and organizations adopt green tourism, which can reduce soil erosion and air pollution caused by various forms of tourism-related transportation. Second, in order to fulfill environmental preservation and economic development objectives, sustainable economic production is preferable in order to limit environmentally damaging emissions (Alola et al. 2019a , 2019b ; Nathaniel et al. 2021 ). These findings suggest that policymakers should implement financial changes aimed at sustainable development, as well as assist tourism initiatives that use renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the findings suggest that these countries economic growth goals should be combined with carbon dioxide emission legislation (Koengkan et al. 2019 ).

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

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Average transition path in the 14 Latin American countries

Average transition path in the 18 European Union countries

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