cruise climb definition

Description

Cruise climb is the most fuel efficient cruising technique. It allows the aircraft to constantly operate at its optimal performance.

As fuel is burnt, the aircraft gradually becomes lighter. Therefore, less lift is required to balance the weight. This means that either speed will increase, or altitude will increase, or thrust will be reduced. Increasing the speed will also increase drag, hence fuel consumption. Reducing thrust means the engine would run in a sub-optimal mode. Increasing the altitude, on the other hand, will keep the engine setting and reduce drag due to air density reduction.

The downside of cruise climb is that it is often incompatible with ATS procedures and traffic demand. In busier airspaces (e.g. Europe, USA, etc.) traffic levels are such that clearing a flight to perform a cruise climb will deny several others the opportunity to fly at or near their optimal levels.

Another issue with clearing an aircraft to perform a cruise climb is that the vertical speed is much lower than the usual 1000-2000 feet per minute. This results in a situation where the aircraft has vacated a level (i.e. is 300 feet away from it) but it is still not available for use by another aircraft. Therefore, ICAO explicitly states in Doc 4444 that if the higher aircraft (A) is performing a cruise climb, the controller cannot clear another aircraft (B) to the level that has just been vacated by A.

The third consideration when clearing a cruise climb is whether the aircraft can reach its final level before the end of the sector. In busier airspace, the time spent in a sector is usually in the range between 5 and 20 minutes. This obviously precludes large vertical movements at a slow rate of climb. If the cruise climb procedure is to be used, its application needs to be specified in local instructions or letters of agreement between neighbouring ATS units.

In practice, cruise climb was used by the Concorde for the transatlantic portion of the flight. This was justified because the aircraft flew above most of the other traffic (the cruise climb was normally between FL 450 and FL 600).

Aircraft authorized to employ cruise climb techniques are cleared to operate between two levels or above a level.

The controller would issue the clearance using the phrases: "CRUISE CLIMB BETWEEN (levels)" or "CRUISE CLIMB ABOVE (level)"

In the flight plan message , the commencement of cruise climb is specified in field 15 (route) by the symbol "C/", location, speed and levels. For example, "C/48N050W/M082F290F350" means "cruise climb starting at 48 degrees North, 50 degrees West, at Mach 0.82 between FL290 and FL350" . If the climb is planned to be above a certain level (instead of between two levels), this is specified by using the "PLUS" string instead of the second level.

Continuous Climb Operations (CCO)

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Simple Flying

How do pilots decide their cruise altitude.

The higher an airplane goes the lower the fuel burn, and it also allows the airplane to achieve greater cruise speeds more efficiently.

Airplanes fly at high altitudes for many reasons. The higher an airplane goes the lower the fuel burn, and it also allows the airplane to achieve greater cruise speeds more efficiently. Furthermore, high altitudes ensure that the aircraft is well away from the most severe weather which can lead to turbulence and icing.

So, how is the cruise altitude for a particular flight determined? This article focuses on the main factors that determine the altitude of an airplane in a flight.

The service ceiling and the absolute ceiling

When an aircraft is certified, a ceiling called service ceiling is calculated by the manufacturer. This is typically defined as the altitude at which a jet aircraft can maintain a climb rate of at least 300 ft/minute. This ceiling varies with weight changes. For pilots operating an aircraft, the altitude of the main concern is the maximum certified altitude.

This altitude is fixed and is a part of the aircraft limitations mentioned in the flight manual. In most passenger aircraft, the maximum certified altitude is a structural limitation enforced due to the pressurization system. The higher an aircraft flies, the greater the pressure difference between the aircraft cabin and the atmosphere. This can, in the long term, damage the fuselage of the aircraft.

The absolute ceiling, also known as the aerodynamic ceiling, is the altitude at which the low-speed stall speed and high-speed stall speed converge. This altitude is also known as the coffin corner. You can read more about this phenomenon in this article: Aerodynamic Phenomenon: A Detailed Look At the Coffin Corner.

The optimum altitude

In normal line operations, airplanes are operated at an altitude called the optimum altitude. This altitude is the most efficient altitude to operate an aircraft as it leads to increased range and less fuel burn.

The optimum altitude is determined in several ways. In its most basic derivation, it is all about increasing the range or the fuel mileage of the aircraft. Large jetliners cruise using Mach number as a speed reference. As an aircraft climbs, its speed or True Air Speed (TAS) increases, and the local speed of sound decreases. The combined result of this is an ever-increasing Mach number.

Initially, the increase in TAS is quite beneficial as it allows the aircraft to cover more ground with less fuel burn. However, as mentioned before, this increases the Mach number. As the Mach number increases, there is a corresponding increase in compressibility drag (drag due to the aircraft approaching the speed of sound).

At some point, this drag increase can overcome the benefits of the increasing TAS and start to reduce the range of the aircraft. So, the altitude at which the effects of compressibility drag do not negatively affect the range of the aircraft is known as the optimum altitude.

One of the biggest factors that affect the optimum altitude is the weight of the aircraft. The heavier the aircraft the more lift-induced drag the aircraft generates (due to the increased operating angle of attack). This means that the speed for the best range increases, which ultimately increases the Mach number.

As the weight of the aircraft decreases, there is a decrease in drag and the speed for best range falls off allowing a decrease in Mach number which allows the aircraft to climb higher as it is no longer limited by the compressibility drag associated with large Mach numbers.

The most optimum or efficient altitude is not only affected by aerodynamics. The environment plays a major role as well, particularly the prevailing winds and temperature. In modern aircraft, the Flight Management System (FMS) calculates the optimum altitude by considering these factors. For this, the pilots are required to input accurate data into the FMS.

This includes entering cruise winds and updating the temperature for various altitudes. During the dispatch phase of the flight, the pilots are provided data on forecast winds and temperature for normal cruise levels of the aircraft. The pilots can then input these data into the FMS and then once in the air the FMS calculates the most optimum altitude based on the input data.

One might now wonder how winds can affect the range or the optimum altitude. The reason is simple. In tailwind conditions, the aircraft gets a push from the winds, which increases the ground range of the aircraft. In a headwind, it is the opposite. The range is reduced as the headwind reduces the ground speed of the aircraft. Thus, when accurate wind data is available, the FMS may give a lower optimum altitude because a favorable wind (a strong tailwind) results in a longer range.

Want answers to more key questions in aviation? Check out the rest of our guides here .

The entered Cost Index (CI) also plays a major role. CI is a time-to-fuel ratio. A higher CI indicates that a particular airline has lower fuel costs compared to time-related costs. A lower CI, on the other hand, indicates the airline spends more on fuel when compared to time-related spending. Each airline has a CI calculated based on their operations and this is mentioned in the flight plan. The pilots can then enter this value in the FMS and the FMS uses this information to further optimize the optimum cruise altitude.

Step climbs

Step climbs or cruise climbs is a climbing technique whereby pilots initially remain at a higher or a lower altitude than the optimum altitude. As discussed earlier, as an aircraft's weight decreases the drag reduces which increases the optimum altitude. In a long-range flight, the fuel burn results in large changes in weight which can keep modifying the optimum altitude throughout the flight.

In the initial parts of the flight, the pilots may cruise at a lower altitude than the optimum altitude. This happens most of the time due to the fact a heavier aircraft has lower climb rates, and a slow climbing aircraft can be a nuisance to both the pilots of other aircraft and air traffic control. Once the fuel is burnt enough, and the weight reduced the pilots can initiate a climb to the optimum altitude.

If the aircraft performance permits, a higher altitude than the optimum can be chosen. This way, as the weight of the aircraft, reduces the aircraft can settle to the optimum altitude later in the flight. This is the best option given all the other conditions, such as weather and ATC complies as this prevents the aircraft from being stuck at lower altitudes for the majority of the flight.

In real life, pilots may not be able to get the optimum altitude for a cruise on every flight. This mainly occurs due to ATC restrictions (other aircraft occupying the altitude, airspace restrictions, etc.). Weather and turbulence are other factors that may prevent pilots from achieving the desired optimum altitude. In such situations, the pilots should try to remain as close as possible to the optimum altitude. Generally, remaining within 2000 ft on either side of the optimum altitude does not affect cruise performance that significantly.

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Stick & Rudder

Climb Considerations

You perform at least one on each flight, but the math may dictate the best efficiency is found by flying much faster than the published speeds for your airplane..

Long ago, an instructor explained to me that knowing the various options for using the airplane, the different ways to make it do what’s needed, and the savvy to use those different models as appropriate, differentiated aviating from rote piloting. In the case of using climb abilities to your benefit, the best preparation begins with knowing and understanding all available options, knowing the plane and practice.

How we chose to perform our climbs should be tailored specifically to the time of day, the weather, the surrounding terrain and/or the traffic. We can chose to maximize the trip’s average groundspeed, minimize fuel use or get as high as we can as fast as we can, fuel efficiency be damned.

Born of Imbalance You, of course, remember the four forces acting on all aircraft in flight: thrust, its counterpart drag, lift and its polar opposite, gravity. In stable, level flight, the two force pairs cancel out each other; thrust and drag balance shown by the aircraft holding a steady speed; and lift balances gravity as evidenced by the aircraft’s constant altitude. Alter that balance between any one of the four and other things also will change as the balance of forces is destabilized.

Climb results from lift exceeding gravity—a change of state produced by the use of power in excess of that needed to sustain stable, level flight at any given pitch setting.

At any given airspeed, any increase in applied power initially accelerates the airplane as it seeks to return to its previous trim attitude—and thus its previous airspeed. That excess speed first turns into altitude gained on an initial climb until the airplane, left alone, stabilizes itself at the old airspeed—but at a steady climb proportional to and consistent with the amount of power added.

Similarly, an aircraft at cruise gradually trimmed to a lower airspeed will, leaving all else alone, gradually begin to climb because the power used exceeds that needed to sustain level flight at the lower airspeed. But that’s not all that’s going on in a climb.

According to the FAA’s Airplane Flying Handbook (AFH), FAA-H-8083-3A, “In a climb, weight no longer acts in a direction perpendicular to the flightpath. It acts in a rearward direction. This causes an increase in total drag requiring an increase in thrust (power) to balance the forces. An airplane can only sustain a climb angle when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag; therefore, climb is limited by the thrust available.” In other words, we must have sufficient power, in excess of that required for straight and level flight, before we can climb.

So it stands, the more power we have in excess of that needed for level flight, the greater the climb rate—at least, as long as the engine makes power enough to sustain that climb.

At some point, the change in altitude results in reduced power or an arrival of indicated airspeed at the stall point on the airspeed indicator—and all rules are off. If the aircraft reaches a point at which it can fly but not climb, it’s at its absolute ceiling. At that point and all things begin equal, the aircraft is unstable, bordering on uncontrolled. But at least you’ve plenty of air beneath you, giving you time to correct your situation and restore your control over the aircraft.

The Forces in Climbs For all practical purposes, the wing’s lift in a normal, steady-state climb is the same as it is in a steady level flight at the same airspeed. Although the aircraft’s flight path changed when the climb was established, the wing’s angle of attack (AoA) with respect to the inclined flight path reverts to practically the same values, as does the lift.

Initially, there is a momentary lift increase: “Raising the aircraft’s nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases the lift. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and starts the aircraft climbing. After the flightpath is stabilized on the upward incline, the AOA and lift again revert to about the level flight values,” according to the FAA’s Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK), FAA-H-8083-25A. This is depicted in Figure 1, above.

Rate or angle? Most pilots’ formal climb training involves some short-field work, perhaps along with exercises focused on maintaining a specific attitude or airspeed. When training to become a multi-engine pilot, we spend a lot of time seemingly trying to balance a large, underpowered airplane on the head of a pin, where any failure to maintain the correct pitch and bank angles is immediately noticed on the vertical speed indicator.

Other than that, we’re usually taught there are two speeds to fly when climbing, one for a best-rate climb and another for the best angle. The best rate of climb speed, VY, is the one delivering the maximum gain in altitude per unit of time. It’s usually higher than the best angle of climb speed, VX, which provides the greatest altitude gain over a given distance. It’s the one you aimed for when doing those aforementioned short-field exercises. A third speed, VYSE, best single-engine rate of climb, is published for multi-engine airplanes. Interestingly, it’s also the only best-climb speed marked on an airspeed indicator.

Reams have been written about which kind of climb is best. Best-rate climbs may get you to altitude quickest, but you’ll likely see the lowest average airspeed across the route. If ATC says “expedite climb” to your final altitude, there’s no question: Use VY. If your departure route takes you toward terrain higher than your departure point, consider VX. More important is remembering to determine the distance to the obstacle and whether climbing at any speed will keep you clear of it.

The other thing to keep in mind about VY and VX is they’re published for an airplane at sea level and change as we climb. Since we very rarely depart a sea-level airport, and since the act of climbing means we’re rather quickly higher than zero feet, we need to adjust our best-climb speeds as altitude increases. The chart on the previous page, Figure 2, details how these speeds change with altitude—VY decreases while VX increases, slightly—all the way to either the airplane’s service ceiling or its absolute altitude.

Cruise Climbs After best-rate and best-angle climbs, a third type also is worthy of discussion: the cruise climb. In general, cruise climbs raise the average speed for the trip, a bit, and lower overall fuel use—particularly when the pilot practices progressive leaning. Adjusting fuel flow downward every turn of the thousand-foot needle of the altimeter saves gas and comes closer to optimizing power. If balancing groundspeed against rate of climb is what you need, a cruise climb is the way to go.

Cruise climbs, of course, lack a definitive V-speed, which makes some sense: It’s a lot more variable than VX or VX—despite the need to modify these two speeds for altitude—and depends more on operational requirements and individual choice than anything else.

A cruise climb is one conducted at an airspeed higher than the best-rate or best-angle climb speeds and produces a lower climb-rate number used to trade off gain for cross-country progress. Cruise climbs not only speed you more quickly toward your destination, they also save fuel, help the engine run cooler and improve the view from most airplanes. In fact, it wouldn’t be hyperbolic to say that most airplanes gain altitude in a cruise-climb configuration rather than one adhering to published speeds. More on cruise climbs in a moment.

Setting up for climbs Every climb requires proper airplane configuration. Factors to consider, in addition to obstacles or climb rate, include engine cooling, out-the-cockpit visibility, minimizing drag, setting power and weather.

For maximum-performance climbs, that means open cowl flaps, if so equipped. With cooling-air flows reduced by the higher angles and lower airspeeds at VY and VX, the cowl flaps will be needed to increase the flow of cooling air coming through the cylinder fins and oil cooler. If opening the cowl flaps isn’t enough, or your airplane doesn’t have that option, excess fuel can be used to keep things cool under the cowling. Enrichening the mixture to, say, 150-200 deg. F rich of peak EGT and consistent with altitude has little-to-no effect on a piston engine’s power production.

Unless needed to sustain a special rate or angle, flaps and gear should be up as quickly as practicable. If speed, however, underpins your climb decision, remember to close those cowl flaps as soon as safe—shortly after trimming to your cruise-climb setting.

And that trim knob, crank or wheel, is seldom more your friend than when setting up the aircraft for a sustained climb. How better to assure a stable, consistent ride up the atmospheric stepladder than by trimming the aircraft for the exact speed you need to hit for cruise climb, obstacle climb or best-rate climb.

When normal won’t work Some call it a “zoom” climb—others may have their own name—but this type of climb results from letting speed build and then hauling back on the pitch control to convert velocity into altitude. For some airport and aircraft combinations, a zoom climb may be the only way out. This is a recommendation to think seriously about the necessity of the flight or the wisdom of the plan if you have to factor into your departure plans for anything like a zoom climb.

Abnormal climbs may also be appropriate for departing a short field in soft conditions—or a short field, period. Don’t let a focus on minimizing takeoff distance and maximizing immediate climb become the enemy of remembering to maintain a comfortable margin above stall speed—in particular if the winds are at all variable.

It’s no fun being close to the ground, at a high pitch angle and higher AOA—only to have strong winds suddenly subside or, worse, reverse direction. And low-level stalls hurt the worst.

Meanwhile, anything that adds drag to an airplane will handicap its performance. A climbing turn, despite how necessary it may be under some circumstances, qualifies.

Absent some reserve power, putting your climbing airplane into a turn will diminish the climb’s rate and, possibly, its angle. If you’re trying to climb out of a box canyon or skyscraper-studded neighborhood, you need more leeway if a turn has to be part of the departure.

Planning Your Climb Consider this scenario: 500 nm to go and the need to fly at 7500 feet msl after taking off from sea level. What’s the most efficient way to get to your cruising altitude?

My long-time traveling machine boasted a full-throttle, best-rate climb of about 950 fpm at 82 KCAS at sea level. Its best-angle climb produced 750 fpm at 65 KCAS. Using those numbers, which admittedly are based on sea-level performance, means I’ll need just under eight minutes to reach my target altitude at maximum-rate climb. In that time, I’ll cover 12 nm. If cruising at 135 knots groundspeed for the rest of the trip, I’d need 3.65 hours for a total of 3.75 hours—three hours, 45 minutes—to arrive at my destination.

If I chose the airplane’s best-angle climb speed, I’ll need 10 minutes to climb to 7500. I’d cover the same 12 miles or so, but spend two more minutes doing it. All else being equal, I’ll spend about three minutes longer en route when climbing at best angle instead of best rate.

But if I used a faster speed after clearing any obstacles, the numbers change again. Trimmed to 115 KIAS for the climb, experience tells me a 500-fpm rate was available. Yes, it took longer to get to 7500 feet, but I would be at nearly 29 nm from my departure point, or more than twice the distance toward my destination.

My total time en route is about 3.4 hours, meaning I can arrive about seven minutes earlier and burn three to four fewer gallons of fuel than the other two options.

Once clear of obstacles and with enough air underneath to lengthen the time available for emergencies, climbing at a faster airspeed pays off for me. It will for you, too.

Climb Performance

Introduction:.

This is true for most aircraft, although some high-performance aircraft can function like rockets for a limited time, utilizing thrust to lift away from the earth vertically, with no lift required
Excess power or thrust, terms that are incorrectly used interchangeably, allow for an aircraft to climb

Power vs. Thrust:

Power and thrust are not the same, despite their use as such
In a piston aircraft, power is converted to thrust through the propeller
In a jet aircraft, the engine produces thrust directly from the engine
When you are moving the throttle controls inside of the aircraft, you're controlling the engine, and that is why they are referred to as power levers
Therefore, the best angle of climb (produces the best climb performance with relation to distance, occurs where the maximum thrust is available
The best rate occurs where the maximum power is available)

Propulsion vs. Drag:

The relationship between propulsion and drag is such that it takes a certain amount of power/thrust to overcome drag both on the high end (the faster you go) and also on the low end (the slower you go)
This is noticeable during slow flight, where you find yourself adding extra power to overcome all the increases in drag that are necessary to sustain lift
The increase in power must first overcome the increased drag, and then the expected performance will occur
You can learn more here: https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2013/november/pilot/proficiency-behind-the-power-curve

Best Angle vs. Best Rate of Climb:

Ultimately, it is because of excess power (or thrust) that an aircraft climbs
For the purpose of the initial climb, however, we are concerned with our aircraft's performance to get away from the ground
Certain conditions will call for a specific climb profile, generally the best rate (V y ) or angle (V x ) of climb

Best Angle-of-Climb:

Max excess thrust results in the best angle of climb
Occurs at L/Dmax for a jet
Occurs below L/Dmax for a prop
Reduced distance to climb to the same altitude as V y , but reaches that altitude slower

Best Rate-of-Climb:

The best rate of climb, or Vy, maximizes velocity to obtain the greatest gain in altitude over a given period of time
Vy is normally used during climb after all obstacles have been cleared
It is the point where the largest power is available
Occurs above L/Dmax for a jet
Occurs at L/Dmax for a prop
Provides more visibility over the cowling
Increases airflow over the engine while at high power
Provides additional buffer from stall speeds
Takes more distance to reach the same altitude as V x , but reaches that altitude quicker

Factors Impacting Climb Performance:

Aircraft weight:.

One of the most basic considerations with regard to aircraft performance is weight, as it is a principle of flight
The higher the weight of an aircraft, the more lift will be required to counteract
Both V y and V x decrease by about 1 knot for each 100 pounds below mass gross takeoff weight

Temperature:

Ambient air temperatures impact an aircraft's performance based on their physical properties
Engines don't like to run hot, and if they do, then reduced throttle settings may be required
Temperature is also a leading factor in determining the effect of air density on climb performance
Consider utilizing a cruise climb once practical to increase airflow over the engine

Air Density:

Air density, and more specifically, density altitude, is the altitude at which the aircraft "thinks" it is at
Performance does not depend on the physical altitude, but rather the density altitude, and the higher the temperature, the higher that altitude
As the engine and airframe struggle to perform, expect changes to characteristics like a reduced climb attitude
As a rule of thumb for GA aircraft, V y decreases by 1 knot of indicated airspeed for each 1,000' increase in density altitude
As a rule of thumb for GA aircraft, V x increases by 1 knot of indicated airspeed for each 2,000' increase in density altitude
Headwinds increase performance by allowing wind flow over the wings without any forward motion of the aircraft
Tailwinds do the opposite

Aircraft Condition:

Smooth, parasite-free wings produce the best lift
Anything to interrupt the smooth flow of air or increase drag will require additional forward movement, or thrust, to overcome
Increased drag will require increased power, and therefore, during the climb, may result in decreased climb performance

Aircraft Engine Age:

As aircraft age, their power available tends to decrease, resulting in decreased climb performance

Determining Rate-of-Climb Requirements:

Ground Speed (GS) (knots) ÷ 60 * Climb Gradient (Feet Per Mile)
Ground Speed = 75 knots
Climb Gradient Required = 200 feet per mile
75 ÷ 60 * 200 = 250 feet per minute climb rate required

Conclusion:

Climb performance is governed by FAR Part 23, depending on aircraft weight
Pilots may always deviate from climb numbers for factors like cooling or the ability to locate and follow traffic
Remember, when flying under instrument conditions, minimum climb gradients are expected unless a deviation is communicated and authorized as applicable
Still looking for something? Continue searching:

References:

Federal Aviation Administration - Pilot/Controller Glossary
PPRuNe - Power vs Thrust (again)

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Climbing and descending

Basic concepts

This lesson builds on the coordination skills learnt in the previous lesson, straight and level. Check with the student what the important elements of the last lesson were. Have they remembered the attitudes you looked at last time, and that all the controls need to be moved in a coordinated way?

There are a large number of power changes made during this air exercise and it is important the student reviews and practises the coordination of elevator and rudder adjustments with changes in power.

There are generally four types of climb: best angle, best rate, cruise, and recommended (for visibility and engine cooling). There are also generally three types of descent: glide, powered, and cruise.

It is recommended you teach the best rate climb and the glide, with a demonstration of the others as time permits.

The last lesson was Straight and level . Now we must learn how to climb and descend to and from straight and level flight, so that we can move towards the circuit lessons.

To enter the climb and the descent from straight and level flight.

To maintain a climb and a descent at a constant speed, constant rate, in a constant direction, and in balance.

To level off at specific altitudes.

Principles of flight

To maintain a constant speed and direction, the aeroplane must be in equilibrium, as discussed in the straight and level lesson. We demonstrate the relationships between the four forces in the climb to show that the aeroplane is still in a state of equilibrium when climbing.

There is no requirement to prove anything in a preflight briefing. Statements illustrated with diagrams are sufficient to support the air exercise.

There is a common misconception that in the climb the lift is increased, since if lift must equal weight in level flight, it might appear logical that lift should be increased to climb, but it is not so. Drawing the forces to show that lift is not increased in the climb – but is slightly reduced – should illustrate that the aeroplane is in equilibrium during the climb.

The most important concept the student should grasp, in simple terms, is that in order for an aeroplane to climb, thrust must be equal to drag plus the rearward component of weight (T = D + RCW). The rate at which the aeroplane will climb depends on how much more power is available. Lots of additional power available will mean a high rate of climb.

The forces acting on the aeroplane in a climb

From the previous lesson the student will know that there are four forces acting on the aeroplane: lift, drag, thrust, and weight, and that in straight and level flight, the aeroplane was in equilibrium. The same is true of the climb – the forces are in equilibrium. They will also know about relative airflow ( RAF ).

Explain that for simplicity your diagram will show the forces acting through just one point, and that the climb angle has been exaggerated for clarity.

Start by showing weight and drag and their resultant, R1 (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 Weight and drag in the climb

Make the statement, “Since the aeroplane is in equilibrium, there must be a force equal and opposite to the resultant R1”.

Then, draw a line from the central point, equal and opposite to R1 and label this R2.

Resolve R2 into its two components, lift and thrust (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 Lift and thrust in the climb

The relationship of the four forces is next explained, as was done in straight and level. Starting with thrust (T) and drag (D).

In straight and level flight thrust equals drag (T = D).

In a climb, thrust must increase to equal drag plus the rearward component of weight (T = D + RCW).

It should be clear to the student from your diagram, that in a steady climb, “thrust is ______ than drag.”

Why then, does the aeroplane not accelerate?

To resolve this question, break weight (W) down into its two components, with the rearward component of weight (RCW) added to the drag vector.

Thrust is equal to the drag plus the ______.

You may wish to finish off the parallelograms to tidy up your resolution of vectors. The end result looks like Figure 3.

Figure 3 Forces acting on an aeroplane in the climb

Finish off by asking the student what force controls the climb. And is there a limit to that force? How might that limit the climb?

Climb performance

Having discussed the forces in the climb, the various factors affecting the climb performance are discussed.

You have just established that the more power available, the better the climb performance.

Engine performance (power) decreases with altitude, so there will be a limit to how high the aeroplane can climb.

In addition, anything that opposes thrust is detrimental to climb performance.

The greater the weight, the greater will be the RCW (rearward component of weight). Therefore, weight reduces the rate of climb and the angle.

Increases lift and drag and alters the lift/drag ratio. Since drag opposes thrust, any increase in drag will reduce the rate and angle of climb.

Affects only the climb angle and the distance travelled over the ground (the range) to reach a specific altitude.

Let the student know that you will be using the best rate climb for this lesson and you will demonstrate the others. They may experience these climbs at this stage but their application will become clearer in later lessons.

Equilibrium is required for a steady descent. If, while in level flight, the power is removed there will be no force balancing the drag. In order to maintain flying speed the nose must be lowered.

With the nose lowered and weight still acting down towards the centre of the earth, there is now a forward component of weight (FCW) that balances drag. State that for equilibrium there must be a force equal and opposite to weight. This force R is made up of lift and drag. Therefore, the aeroplane is in equilibrium (see Figure 4).

Figure 4 Forces acting on an aeroplane in the descent

Point out that the relative airflow is now coming up the slope to meet the aeroplane and therefore the angle of attack is still approximately 4 degrees.

Power controls the rate of descent (ROD), the more power used, the less the ROD . Power also reduces the descent angle and increases the distance travelled over the ground, increasing the range from a given altitude.

Lift/drag ratio

The ratio of lift to drag is a measure of the efficiency of the wing. For example, the higher the lift to drag ratio, the further the aeroplane will glide (its range). Another way to think of it is the L/D ratio determines the steepness of the glide, or descent angle.

If you then change this ratio by increasing the drag (by extending flap or flying at an incorrect airspeed) a greater forward component of weight is required to balance the drag – steepening the flight path.

A change in weight does not affect the descent angle. With an aeroplane flying at its best L/D ratio, an increase in weight will increase the FCW, increasing the speed down the slope, and therefore the rate of descent, but not the descent angle.

Show this by increasing the length of the weight vector in your diagram. The FCW increases the airspeed down the slope, and the increased airspeed leads to an increase in lift and drag (with the L/D ratio remaining unchanged), and all the forces remain in equilibrium (see Figure 5).

Figure 5 Effect of change in weight on descent

The increased drag produced by the flap requires an increased FCW to maintain equilibrium and thereby steepens the descent, increases the ROD , and reduces the range.

Affects only the descent angle and the range from a given altitude.

Situational awareness should be briefly described as a three-dimensional assessment of what has been, what is, and what will be. Explain that this skill takes time to develop, but should be practised at every opportunity.

Introduce the concept of threat and error management in simple and practical terms, as applicable to climbing and descending.

The met minima requirements for VFR flight outside controlled airspace, below 3000 feet AMSL or within 1000 feet of the ground should be revised – refer to the NZ Airspace poster and VFR Met Minima card.

Discuss minimum height requirements. For example, 500 feet AGL minimum over unpopulated areas, 1000 feet AGL minimum over built-up areas but not less than that required to glide clear of the populated area. Stipulate any club or organisation minimum safe heights.

Discuss the restrictions on lookout in relation to high and low nose attitudes. Explain that there are at least two methods for ensuring the area ahead is clear: lowering the nose every 500 feet; or making gentle S-turns. While climbing out to the training area you will use gentle S-turns.

As the exercise does not involve prolonged climbs or descents – usually no more than 500 feet – there is no need to use either method, but a good lookout must be maintained, particularly before starting the climb or descent.

Revise situational awareness in relation to aeroplane positioning, lateral and vertical limits of the training area, and VFR met minima requirements within the training area.

Revise the I’M SAFE checklist, reminding the student to complete this before leaving home.

Aeroplane management

The student has informed you of the power setting that will give the best climb performance. You need to point out that not all aeroplanes can climb on full power continuously.

If the organisation or aeroplane has an rpm limit for the prolonged climb, it should have been explained in the desired configuration above, if not then explain it here.

The detrimental effects of a prolonged glide should be discussed, for example, plug fouling and excessive cylinder-head cooling. This should lead to a discussion on the advantages of a powered descent.

The use of full rich mixture to aid engine cooling and prevent detonation at power settings above 75 percent (below 5000 feet) should be explained.

During training, it is common practice to use full rich mixture in the descent (discuss mixture control in prolonged descent from altitude).

Carburettor heat

Carburettor heat is not normally used at climb power settings because of the detrimental effect of carburettor heat on engine performance, and therefore climb performance.

In the descent, hot air is selected before reducing power because of the increased likelihood of carburettor icing.

Temperature and pressure gauges

In the climb it is normal to see an increase in oil and cylinder head temperatures with a decrease in oil (and fuel) pressure. In the descent it is normal to see a decrease in oil and cylinder-head temperatures and an increase in oil (and fuel) pressure.

The normal readings for this aeroplane in the climb and descent should be discussed. In addition, how to prevent these readings reaching their limits in an air-cooled engine should be discussed. For example: lowering the nose attitude to climb at a higher airspeed or, if necessary, levelling off for a short period, or during descent increasing power every 1000 feet to warm the engine oil and clear the spark plugs of carbon deposits, or the use of a powered descent.

Human factors

Discuss the effects of trapped gases in the middle ear and sinus in relation to their expansion with increasing and decreasing altitude. In general, a comfortable rate of descent for a fit person is 500 feet per minute. Discuss and demonstrate the ‘Valsalva manoeuvre’.

Discuss the dangers of diving and flying.

Discuss the effects of altitude on vision with regard to empty sky myopia (short-sightedness) or focal resting lengths, reinforcing the need for a clean windscreen and systematic scan technique. Also discuss the effect of the background on object detection.

As a result of high power settings, noise levels will be increased and it is appropriate to discuss the effects of exposure to noise as well as how to prevent hearing damage.

Air exercise

Planning the lesson sequence will vary depending on such factors as an appropriate cloud base, airspace ceiling, and the ability to achieve both climbing and descending objectives.

The air exercise concentrates on improving the coordination skills learnt in the previous lessons, by entering and maintaining the climb and descent, while maintaining the aeroplane in balance, and regaining straight and level. It is particularly important to reinforce the need to balance power changes with rudder.

Introduce some basic radio calls.

Discuss the nose attitude position in relation to the horizon for the selected climb configuration.

Entry to the climb is taught as PAT , reinforcing the concept that climb performance depends on power. Since increasing power smoothly (stop the resulting yaw with rudder) will cause the nose to pitch up, power and attitude should be considered a coordinated movement, and no engine over-speed should occur.

Power + Attitude = Performance

Check mixture rich, smoothly increase power (while stopping the yaw with rudder) to full power or maximum continuous; keep straight using the reference point.

With elevator, select and hold the attitude for the nominated climb, maintaining wings level with aileron and balance with rudder.

Remove excessive loads by trimming back. Once performance has been confirmed, trim accurately to maintain a constant attitude.

If the correct climb attitude is selected the airspeed will be _____ knots (exactly). If both the attitude and the power setting are correct, the resulting performance is a steady rate of climb of _____ ft/min (500–700 approx). If the wings are held level and balance maintained, the aeroplane cannot turn. Therefore, the objective of entering and maintaining the climb has been achieved.

Maintaining the climb incorporates the LAI scan, with those instruments pertinent to the climb being scanned most frequently for accurate flight.

If the airspeed is not correct, then the attitude is incorrect, and performance will be affected. Emphasise that the airspeed is altered by reference to attitude, and that due to inertia once a change has been made, a smaller change in the opposite direction will be required to hold the new attitude. These corrections are commonly stated as “change – check – hold – trim”.

To regain straight and level from a climb, the mnemonic APT is used.

Anticipate the required altitude by approximately 10 percent of the rate of climb, ie, a climb of 500 feet per minute will require an anticipation of 50 feet.

With the elevator, select and hold the level attitude. The airspeed will increase only gradually, because the aeroplane must overcome inertia. To assist this process, climb power is maintained until a suitable airspeed has been achieved. As the airspeed increases the aeroplane’s nose will want to pitch up, requiring subtly increasing forward pressure on the control column to maintain the correct attitude. The wings should be kept level in relation to the horizon, and rudder adjusted to keep straight on the reference point.

Through _____ knots, decrease power to _____ rpm. The resultant pitch change and yaw must be compensated for, remember to use smooth throttle movements.

Accurate trim cannot be achieved until equilibrium has been established. However, obvious control loads may be reduced immediately, then followed by accurate trimming.

Once the instruments confirm level flight is being maintained, the aeroplane can be accurately trimmed to maintain the selected attitude and reference point.

Discuss the nose attitude position in relation to the horizon for the descent.

Entry to the descent is taught as PAT .

Check the mixture is rich, carburettor heat HOT, smoothly close the throttle and keep straight using the reference point.

With the power reduction, the nose will want to pitch down. With elevator, hold the level attitude until the nominated descent airspeed is almost reached (allowing for inertia), and then select and hold the attitude for the nominated descent. Maintain wings level with aileron, and balance with rudder.

Remove excessive load by trimming (usually backwards) and once the performance is achieved, trim accurately to maintain a constant attitude.

With the correct descent attitude selected the airspeed will be _____ knots exactly. If the attitude is correct, and the power is set correctly, the resulting performance is a steady rate of descent of _____ ft/min (approx 500). If the wings are held level and balance maintained, the aeroplane cannot turn. Therefore the objective of entering and maintaining the descent has been achieved.

Maintaining the descent incorporates the LAI scan, with those instruments pertinent to the descent being scanned most frequently for accurate flight.

If the airspeed is not correct then the attitude is incorrect. Emphasise that the airspeed is altered by reference to attitude and that, due to inertia, once a change has been made a smaller change in the opposite direction will be required to hold the new attitude. “Change – check – hold – trim.”

To regain straight and level from the descent, the mnemonic PAT is used. Because of inertia, power leads the sequence to arrest the descent.

Anticipate the required altitude by approximately 10 percent of the rate of descent, ie, a descent of 500 feet per minute will require an anticipation of 50 feet.

Carburettor heat COLD, smoothly increase power to cruise power (balancing with rudder).

As airspeed increases, rpm may increase slightly, requiring another throttle adjustment.

The power change will cause the nose to yaw, if not corrected with rudder, and to pitch up. The pitch-up tendency encourages a coordinated movement because the next step is...

With the elevator, select and hold the level attitude. Maintain wings level with aileron, and balance with rudder.

Remove obvious loads, and when straight and level has been confirmed through LAI, trim accurately to hold the correct attitude.

Airborne sequence

On the ground.

Ask the student to carry out the preflight inspection while you observe.

Ask the student to taxi, and point out the obstructions and possible threats as they go. Depending on the level of comfort of the student at this stage of their training, you may like to introduce the checklists to them and get them to follow you through, or do the checks as you call them out.

The exercise

Depending on their level of comfort, you may either want to let the student complete the take-off, while you follow them through, or talk them through the experience.

On the way out to the training area demonstrate the climbing attitude relevant to the horizon and the corresponding speed. Ask the student to point out the landmarks they were shown in the last lesson.

Review straight and level with emphasis on a specific altitude.

From straight and level nominate a reference point and altitude to climb to – considering cloud and overlying airspace restrictions. Demonstrate the climb and the level off to resume straight and level at a specific altitude. Anticipation of the altitude is required.

The student should now practise the entry to the climb, maintaining the climb and the level out until proficient. Then have the student establish the aeroplane in another climb and demonstrate different climb attitudes and corresponding speeds, noting rate of climb effect, and the effect of flap, especially flap retraction in a climb, in preparation for the go around in the circuit lessons. Once it has been demonstrated, encourage the student to make the flap selections and note the effect it has on the attitude, airspeed, rate of climb and trim.

Have the student establish in straight and level on a reference point. Nominate a reference point and altitude to descend to – considering minimum height restrictions. Remind the student that you will be using the glide, with the throttle closed. Demonstrate the glide and the level off to resume straight and level at a specific altitude. Anticipation of the altitude is required.

The student should now practise the entry to the descent, maintaining the descent and the level out. Once the student has completed the sequence, have the student establish the aeroplane in another descent and demonstrate the effect of power and flap. Once it has been demonstrated, encourage the student to make the flap selections and note the effect it has on the attitude, airspeed, rate of descent and trim.

Practise the climb and descent as required, so that the student is comfortable with the entry, maintenance, and exit, and coordinates rudder with power changes.

On the way back to the aerodrome, demonstrate the cruise descent, including the selection of power and rate of descent appropriate for the conditions. Remind the student that there will be time to practise this on every flight.

After flight

The next lesson will be turning. Ask the student to read any notes they have on turns and to remember the attitudes they saw in this lesson.

Ask the student what they learnt about power changes and rudder use.

Climbing and descending whiteboard layout [PDF 106 KB]

Revised 2023

Medium, climbing and descending turns

Cruise Climb

A climb technique employed by aircraft, usually at a constant power setting, resulting in an increase of altitude as the aircraft weight decreases.

Source: Pilot Contoller Glossary (PCG)

Everything about V Speeds Explained

Richie lengel.

FAA regulations could change at any time. Please refer to current FARs to ensure you are legal. Illustration by Tim Barker

— From the French word vitesse, meaning “speed.”

— Maximum speed in the takeoff at which the pilot must take the first action (e.g., apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speedbrakes) to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance. V1 also means the minimum speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the critical engine at VEF, at which the pilot can continue the takeoff and achieve the required height above the surface within the takeoff distance.

— Takeoff safety speed for jets, turboprops or transport-category aircraft. Best climb gradient speed (i.e., best altitude increase per mile with the most critical engine inop). Twin-engine aircraft with an engine inop are guaranteed a 2.4 percent climb gradient (24 feet up per 1,000 feet forward). Minimum speed to be maintained to at least 400 feet agl.

— Minimum takeoff safety speed. Usually 1.2 times the stall speed in takeoff configuration.

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— Design maneuvering speed. The highest safe airspeed for abrupt control deflection or for operation in turbulence or severe gusts. It does not allow for multiple large control inputs. If only one speed is published it is usually determined at max landing weight. This speed decreases as weight decreases. Formula for determining VA at less than max landing weight: VA2 equals VA multiplied by current weight divided by max landing weight.

— Maximum speed for airbrake extension.

— Maximum speed for airbrake operation.

— Missed-approach climb speed for flap configuration with critical engine inop (2.1 percent climb gradient).

— Approach target speed. VREF plus configuration (flaps/slats setting) and wind factor. Typically add (to VREF) half the headwind component plus all the gust factor (to a max of 20 knots).

— Design speed for maximum gust intensity for transport-category aircraft or other aircraft certified under Part 25. Turbulent-air penetration speed that protects the structure in 66 fps gusts.

— Design cruising speed. Speed at which the aircraft was designed to cruise. The completed aircraft may actually cruise slower or faster than VC. It is the highest speed at which the structure must withstand the FAA’s hypothetical “standard 50 fps gust.”

— Design diving speed. The aircraft is designed to be capable of diving to this speed (in very smooth air) and be free of flutter, control reversal or buffeting. Control surfaces have a natural vibration frequency where they begin to “flutter” like a flag in a stiff breeze. If flutter begins, it can become catastrophic in a matter of seconds. It can worsen until the aircraft is destroyed, even if airspeed is reduced as soon as flutter begins.

— Accelerate/stop decision speed for multiengine piston and light multiengine turboprops.

— Demonstrated flight diving speed. VDF is in knots. MDF is a percentage of Mach number. Some aircraft are incapable of reaching VD because of a lack of power or excess drag. When this is the case, the test pilot dives to the maximum speed possible — the demonstrated flight diving speed.

— Speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff (used in certification tests).

— En route climb speed with critical engine inop. Jets accelerate to VENR above 1,500 feet agl.

— Design flap speed. The flaps are designed to be operated at this maximum speed. If the engineers did a good job, the actual flap speed, or VFE, will be the same.

— Maximum speed for undesirable flight characteristics. It must be regarded with the same respect as VNE: redline. Instability could develop beyond the pilot’s ability to recover. VFC is expressed in knots; MFC is expressed in percentage of Mach.

— Maximum flap-extended speed. Top of white arc. The highest speed permissible with wing flaps in a prescribed extended position. Many aircraft allow the use of approach flaps at speeds higher than VFE. Positive load for Normal category airplanes is usually reduced from 3.8 Gs to 2 Gs with the flaps down, and negative load is reduced from minus 1.52 Gs to zero. The purpose of flaps during landing is to enable steeper approaches without increasing the airspeed.

— Flap retract speed. The minimum speed required for flap retraction after takeoff.

— Final segment speed (jet takeoff) with critical engine inop. Accelerate to VFS at 400 feet agl.

— Final takeoff speed. End of the takeoff path. En route configuration. One engine inoperative.

— Best glide speed. This speed decreases as weight decreases.

— Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power. Mainly used for aircraft advertising. Ultralights are limited by Part 103 to a VH of 55 knots.

— Maximum landing gear extended speed. Maximum speed at which an airplane can be safely flown with the landing gear extended.

— Maximum landing light extended speed.

— Maximum landing light operating speed.

— Maximum landing gear operating speed. Maximum speed at which the landing gear can be safely extended or retracted. Usually limited by air loads on the wheel-well doors. On some aircraft, the doors close after extension, allowing acceleration to VLE. In an emergency involving loss of control — when the ground is getting close and the airspeed is quickly approaching redline — forget about this speed. Throw the gear out! As a now famous Flying magazine writer once said, you might lose a gear door, but it's far better than losing a wing.

— Liftoff speed. Speed at which the aircraft becomes airborne. Back pressure is applied at VR (rotate) — a somewhat lower speed — so that liftoff actually happens at VLOF.

VMCA or VMC

— More commonly known as VMC (although VMCA is more correct). Minimum control speed with the critical engine (usually the left) inoperative out of ground effect in the air — “red line” — and most critical engine inop and windmilling; 5 degrees of bank toward the operative engine; takeoff power on operative engine; gear up; flaps up; and most rearward CG. In this configuration, if airspeed is allowed to diminish below VMC, even full rudder cannot prevent a yaw toward the dead engine. At slower speeds, the slower-moving wing — the one with the failed engine — will stall first. VMC is not a constant; it can be reduced by feathering the prop, moving the CG forward and reducing power.

— Minimum speed necessary to maintain directional control after an engine failure during the takeoff roll while still on the ground. Determined using aerodynamic controls with no reliance on nosewheel steering. Applies to jets, turboprops or transport-category aircraft.

— Maximum operating limit speed for turboprops or jets. VMO is indicated airspeed measured in knots and is mainly a structural limitation that is the effective speed limit at lower altitudes. MMO is a percentage of Mach limited by the change to the aircraft’s handling characteristics as localized airflow approaches the speed of sound, creating shock waves that can alter controllability. As altitude increases, indicated airspeed decreases while Mach remains constant. MMO is the effective speed limit (“barber pole” on the airspeed indicator) at higher altitudes. MMO is usually much higher for swept-wing jets than for straight-wing designs.

— Minimum unstick speed. Slowest speed at which an aircraft can become airborne. Originated as a result of testing for the world’s first jet transport, the de Havilland Comet. During an ill-fated takeoff attempt, the nose was raised so high and prematurely that the resultant drag prevented further acceleration and liftoff. Tests were then established to ensure that future heavy transports could safely take off with the tail touching the ground and maintain this attitude until out of ground effect.

— Never-exceed speed — “red line.” Applies only to piston-powered airplanes. This speed is never more than 90 percent of VDF. G loads imposed by any turbulence can easily overstress an aircraft at this speed.

— “No” go there. Maximum structural cruising speed. Beginning of the yellow arc, or caution range. Theoretically, a brand-new aircraft can withstand the FAA’s 50 fps gust at this speed. Unfortunately, the pilot has no way of measuring gust intensity.

— Rotation speed. Recommended speed to start applying back pressure on the yoke, rotating the nose so, ideally, the aircraft lifts off the ground at VLOF.

— Calculated reference speed for final approach. Final approach speed. Usually 1.3 times VSO or higher. Small airplanes: bottom of white arc plus 30 percent. Jets: calculated from landing-performance charts that consider weight, temperature and field elevation. To this speed jets typically calculate an approach speed (VAP) by adding (to VREF) half the headwind component plus the gust factor (to a max of 20 knots).

— Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable. VS is a generic term and usually does not correspond to a specific airspeed.

— Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in a specific configuration. Normally regarded as the “clean” — gear and flaps up — stall speed. Lower limit of the green arc (remember, “stuff in”). However, this is not always the case. It could represent stall speed with flaps in takeoff position or any number of different configurations. So VS1 is a clean stall, but the definition of “clean” could vary.

— Stall speed in landing configuration. Lower limit of white arc. Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable in landing configuration: engines at idle, props in low pitch, usually full wing flaps, cowl flaps closed, CG at maximum forward limit (i.e., most unfavorable CG) and max gross landing weight. Maximum allowable VSO for single-engine aircraft and many light twins is 61 knots (remember, “stuff out”).

— Minimum safe single-engine speed (multi). Provides a reasonable margin against an unintentional stall when making intentional engine cuts during training.

— Takeoff safety speed for Category A rotorcraft.

— Maximum windshield-wiper operating speed.

— Best angle-of-climb speed. Delivers the greatest gain of altitude in the shortest possible horizontal distance. The speed given in the flight manual is good only at sea level, at max gross weight and with flaps in takeoff position. VX increases with altitude (about ½ knot per 1,000 feet) and usually decreases with a reduction of weight. It will take more time to gain altitude at VX because of the slower speed, but the goal is to gain the most altitude in the shortest horizontal distance.

— Best single-engine angle-of-climb speed (multiengine, 12,500 pounds or less).

— Best rate-of-climb speed. Delivers the greatest gain in altitude in the shortest time. Flaps and gear up. Decreases as weight is reduced, and decreases with altitude. Lift-to-drag ratio is usually at its maximum at this speed, so it can also be used as a good ballpark figure for best glide speed or maximum-endurance speed for holding.

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5 Things To Consider When You're Picking A Cruise Altitude

By Colin Cutler

They say the three most useless things to a pilot are runway behind you, fuel not in your tanks, and altitude above you. So when you're picking your cruise altitude for your next cross-country, is higher really better?

It could be, but you have a lot to consider. Here are 5 things to think about when you're planning your next flight.

1) Am I Going To Hit Something?

There's nothing that will ruin your day like hitting terrain or an obstacle. So how do you make sure you're clear on your route? If you're flying VFR, one of the easiest ways is to open your sectional and check out the MEF (Maximum Elevation Figure) altitudes for your route.

The MEF is the bold blue altitude, in hundreds of feet MSL, listed in the middle of each quadrant of your sectional. That altitude guarantees you at least 100 feet (up to 300 feet, in some cases) of clearance from all terrain and obstacles in the quadrant.

So as long as you pick an altitude above the MEF, you can rest easy in knowing that you're not going to hit something poking out of the ground while you're enroute.

2) Can My Plane Actually Get There?

It's a valid question, and it's not always easy to answer. You need to be practical with your altitude choice. If you're flying a short distance, it doesn't make a lot of sense to spend the majority of your flight in a climb.

That's where your aircraft's Fuel, Time and Distance to climb chart comes into play. For most aircraft, your time-to-climb is pretty linear, but if you're flying a normally aspirated airplane above 10,000 feet MSL, your climb rate can start to tail off significantly. And on top of that, you're burning extra fuel, and flying a slow indicated airspeed, all the way to your cruise altitude.

But the opposite is true when it comes to your true airspeed. The higher you go, the higher your true airspeed. The rule of thumb is that you gain 2% of true airspeed for every 1,000 feet you climb, and that can make a big difference. Consider this: if you're flying at 140 knots indicated at 5,500' MSL, your true airspeed will be roughly 154 knots. But if you fly the same indicated speed at 11,500', your true airspeed shoots up to 170 knots. That's a gain of 16 knots, which is big difference maker, especially on long flights.

3) What Kind Of Airspace Do I Need To Deal With?

Ahhhh everyone's favorite: airspace . There's controlled airspace, special use airspace, and just about every kind of airspace you can think of listed on sectional charts these days.

Fortunately there are lots of great planning tools out there, like ForeFlight, than can help you navigate around tower controlled airports and special use airspace along your route. But there's another way to make life easy on yourself when it comes to airspace: simply climb above it.

If you can get yourself above 10,000 feet MSL, you've all but guaranteed yourself clearance above tower controlled airspace, even Class B. There are of course a few exceptions, like the Denver Class B that extends up to 12,000' MSL, but they're few and far between.

Unfortunately, the same can't be said for restricted areas and other special use airspace, but a quick check on your sectional map can clear up any questions about that.

4) What About The Clouds?

Now that you've gotten this far, you need to contend with the weather. And mother nature isn't always cooperative when it comes to flying.

That's where your METARs, TAFs and PIREPs come into play. When you're checking the clouds, think about coverage and altitude. If you're looking at few or scattered clouds, climbing above them might be an option, but if you're looking at a broken layer along your route, it's best to stay below.

After all, there's nothing more embarrassing (and panic-inducing) than getting stuck on top of a cloud deck with no way to get down, short of declaring an emergency. Or, if you're an instrument pilot, scrambling to find charts to navigate your way down through the soup on a pop-up IFR clearance.

Also, remember that METARs and TAFs list cloud bases in AGL, not MSL. So you'll need to do some math to figure out where the bases will be to maintain your VFR cloud-clearance requirements.

5) Are My Passengers Going To Hate Me?

There's one final consideration, and it's quite possibly the most important thing: what are your passengers going to think of you when you touch down on the runway?

If your passengers' teeth are getting rattled out of their heads because of turbulence, they're not going to be very impressed. And one place you're almost guaranteed to find turbulence is around shear layers in the winds aloft.

While you obviously want to consider your headwind or tailwind along your route, you also want to make sure you're keeping yourself clear of any significant shear layers aloft.

Take this for example. On this route from KGCY-KEHO, there's a 24 knot wind velocity difference between 3,000' and 6,000', with a nearly 50 degree wind direction direction difference. And if you're thinking things would be bumpy in that area, you're right.

Taking a look at area the PIREPs with a tool like ForeFlight (or ADDS, if you're not a ForeFlight user), confirms what you'd expect: a Cherokee pilot reported continuous moderate turbulence below 4,500' MSL.

So unless you want to pack extra sick sacks for your passengers, it's a good idea to be on the lookout for the "smooth ride" altitudes, as well as the favorable winds aloft.

Putting It All Together

There's a lot to consider when you're picking your cruise altitude. But if you're thinking about obstacles, your plane's performance, and the weather and winds along your route, you'll have a smooth flight, and hopefully some happy passengers as well.

Become a better pilot. Subscribe to get the latest videos, articles, and quizzes that make you a smarter, safer pilot.

Colin is a Boldmethod co-founder and lifelong pilot. He's been a flight instructor at the University of North Dakota, an airline pilot on the CRJ-200, and has directed the development of numerous commercial and military training systems. You can reach him at [email protected] .

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cruise-climb

1.1 Alternative forms
1.2.1 Coordinate terms

Alternative forms

cruise climb

cruise - climb ( third-person singular simple present cruise-climbs , present participle cruise-climbing , simple past and past participle cruise-climbed )

( aviation , usually intransitive , of an aircraft ) To slowly but continuously climb during cruise flight as the aircraft's weight decreases due to fuel burnoff (done because flight at higher altitudes is more efficient but requires a lighter aircraft). For a transatlantic crossing, the Concorde would be assigned a ~15,000-foot block of altitude; it started out at flight level 450 and gradually cruise-climbed up to between FL570 and FL600 over the mid-Atlantic before beginning to descend.

Coordinate terms

cruise - climb ( plural cruise-climbs )

( aviation ) An instance of cruise-climbing . A cruise-climb is more efficient than the standard step climb, but is rarely used since it's much harder for ATC to manage.

English lemmas
English verbs
English multiword terms
en:Aviation
English intransitive verbs
English terms with usage examples
English nouns
English countable nouns

Let’s fire up the Wayback machine and set it for high school physics class. As an aircraft climbs, it burns fuel (and by extension, money) to provide kinetic energy. That energy is used for climb performance and airspeed (countering that demon drag in the process). Once the aircraft is tucked away at a cruise altitude, some of that formerly-kinetic energy is available as potential energy due to the force of gravity acting on the aircraft. Potential energy can be converted back into kinetic energy by initiating a descent, which you can observe as increasing airspeed (all else remaining equal).

OK, that’s over simplified. But the fact remains that there is an opportunity latent in the energy stored by being up high. Here’s some similarly simplified logic: Airplanes speed up during descents; pilots usually like going fast; a faster airplane gets to its destination quicker, which usually saves money; pilots like saving money. Therefore, pilots should descend fast.

Except that many don’t.

Relearning the Basics

“What’s learned first is learned best” is a wonderful tool if used properly by instructors. However, the majority of pilots that I’ve flown with over the years exhibit the same behavior when it comes to descents. These pilots initiate a descent by first reducing power, then pitching down to maintain their cruise speed, further reducing power to keep that speed while descending at a reasonable rate. Sound familiar?

When flying a low-performance aircraft like a Skyhawk or a Cherokee, at relatively low cruise altitudes, it really doesn’t make much difference whether you fly a cruise-power descent or a reduced-power descent—you might hit 120 at cruise power as opposed to 105 at reduced-power. It’s when these same pilots upgrade to higher-performance aircraft with cleaner airframes and higher cruise altitudes, such as a Centurion or Bonanza, and don’t alter their style of flying that it becomes an issue.

The basic premise is that after spending a significant investment of time and fuel (money) climbing up to cruise altitude, you want to plan and execute your descent on the other end of the flight in order to make optimum use of your stored potential energy. You also don’t want to give up too early the higher true airspeed at altitude due to the thinner air or spend longer than necessary down low when clouds or wind make it a bumpy mess near the ground. Don’t worry, it’s not as scary as it sounds and there won’t be a test at the end, just smaller bills to pay.

Managing the Descent

Planning a descent is not rocket science, it’s just some simple mental math. I prefer to plan for 500 FPM descents because it makes the math easy and it’s easy on unpresurized ears. For instance, if you’re 8000 feet above your target altitude, it will take you 16 minutes to get there at 500 FPM, regardless of your airspeed. What trips up many pilots is determining how far from the target the descent should begin.

I like simple numbers for mental math because they build in wiggle room. Will your descent be roughly 120 knots, such as in a Skyhawk? Plan on two miles per minute over the ground, which means you start down 32 miles before your target (16 min x 2 nm/min). Going a bit faster, such as in a Centurion? Ballpark it at 180 knots and plan on three miles per minute. The same 16 minutes requires starting down 48 miles out. Now pad each of them by a couple miles and you should be good to go. Most modern GPS units have VNAV planning built in, but it usually takes just as long as the mental math to set up.

Staying below the yellow arc on the airspeed indicator makes one less thing to think about when you hit some bumps punching through a cloud layer. During a descent rate in the 500-FPM neighborhood, this is usually not a factor because in a cruise descent like this, I’ve found most clean retracts will pick up about 25-30 knots. You would have to shove the nose over real far to have airspeed limitations become a problem, and by that point any passengers in an unpressurized cabin would probably be strangling you anyway.

I’m in the camp that says cruise power descents also avoid shock cooling the engine(s) and that you make gradual power reductions of one inch of manifold pressure per minute to keep big-bore engines happy. Just look at the difference between your current power setting and the desired power setting at your target and then apply the same 2 nm/min or 3 nm/min rule discussed above. Reduce power not only enough to keep the MP from increasing as you go down (if you’re not turbocharged) but enough to actually decrease the MP every minute. Remember that once you nose down and pick up some speed, it takes a little while for the speed to bleed off when power is reduced and the descent maintained.

Playing the ATC Game

No discussion of descents could be complete without bringing up ATC. ATC demands can be the limiting factor when it comes to your descents, regardless of what you had in mind, but only if you let them. Correlating your needs with ATC’s needs usually isn’t that difficult.

For starters, asking for a descent at pilot’s discretion (PD) might be all that’s needed. During a PD descent, ATC gives you the freedom to descend at any rate you choose, and to begin descent whenever you choose. Contrast that with the standard “descend and maintain” verbiage, which expects you to descend “at an optimum rate consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft,” but it’s not to be lower than 500 FPM.

Second-best to the PD descent is a crossing restriction, which is stated as “Cross ALDAN at and maintain 7000.” This restriction still gives you a little freedom by allowing you to descend however you choose, so long as you are at 7000 by the time you pass ALDAN. You may need to redo your mental calculations to make it work. Sometimes the controller has his hands full in a busy terminal area and can’t give you much wiggle room. That’s just the nature of the game.

Mileage May Vary (Literally)

There’s nothing inherently wrong about a low-power, gradual, cruise descent. But there’s nothing inherently wrong about flying down final at 90 knots into Big City International, either. However, in both cases there exists a better way so long as you put enough thought into it so you don’t get caught at the end with too much speed or altitude.

Cruise descents result in an incremental gain. Saving 5 to 10 minutes per flight might seem insignificant and could easily be wiped out by a bad vector in the terminal area. However, shaving off that kind of time on average over the course of just a handful of flights, could easily save a half hour or more. The engine health benefits resulting from this change are indeterminate, but there’s a reason the companies that sell spoilers for high-performance airplanes are still in business and why Part 135 operators that practice good energy management get extended TBOs on their motors.

Both those factors translate directly to your wallet, and that surely makes every pilot happier.

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Flight Safety

Climb Considerations

You perform at least one on each flight, but the math may dictate the best efficiency is found by flying much faster than the published speeds for your airplane..

Long ago, an instructor explained to me that knowing the various options for using the airplane, the different ways to make it do what’s needed, and the savvy to use those different models as appropriate; differentiated aviating from rote piloting. In the case of using climb abilities to your benefit, the best preparation begins with knowing and understanding all available options, knowing the plane and practice.

Born of Imbalance

You, of course, remember the four forces acting on all aircraft in flight: thrust, its counterpart drag, lift and its polar opposite, gravity. In stable, level flight, the two force pairs cancel out each other; thrust and drag balance shown by the aircraft holding a steady speed; and lift balances gravity as evidenced by the aircraft’s constant altitude. Alter that balance between any one of the four and other things also will change as the balance of forces is destabilized.

Climb results from lift exceeding gravity—a change of state produced by the use of power in excess of that needed to sustain stable, level flight at any given pitch setting.

So it stands, the more power we have in excess of that needed for level flight, the greater the climb rate—at least, as long as the engine makes power enough to sustain that climb.

The Forces in Climbs

For all practical purposes, the wing’s lift in a normal, steady-state climb is the same as it is in a steady level flight at the same airspeed. Although the aircraft’s flight path changed when the climb was established, the wing’s angle of attack (AoA) with respect to the inclined flight path reverts to practically the same values, as does the lift.

Rate or Angle?

Most pilots’ formal climb training involves some short-field work, perhaps along with exercises focused on maintaining a specific attitude or airspeed. When training to become a multi-engine pilot, we spend a lot of time seemingly trying to balance a large, underpowered airplane on the head of a pin, where any failure to maintain the correct pitch and bank angles is immediately noticed on the vertical speed indicator.

The other thing to keep in mind about VY and VX is they’re published for an airplane at sea level and change as we climb. Since we very rarely depart a sea-level airport, and since the act of climbing means we’re rather quickly higher than zero feet, we need to adjust our best-climb speeds as altitude increases. The chart on the right, Figure 2, details how these speeds change with altitude—VY decreases while VX increases, slightly—all the way to either the airplane’s service ceiling or its absolute altitude.

Cruise Climbs

After best-rate and best-angle climbs, a third type also is worthy of discussion: the cruise climb. In general, cruise climbs raise the average speed for the trip, a bit, and lower overall fuel use—particularly when the pilot practices progressive leaning. Adjusting fuel flow downward every turn of the thousand-foot needle of the altimeter saves gas and comes closer to optimizing power. If balancing groundspeed against rate of climb is what you need, a cruise climb is the way to go.

Setting Up for Climbs

Every climb requires proper airplane configuration. Factors to consider, in addition to obstacles or climb rate, include engine cooling, out-the-cockpit visibility, minimizing drag, setting power and weather.

When Normal Won’t Work

Some call it a “zoom” climb—others may have their own name—but this type of climb results from letting speed build and then hauling back on the pitch control to convert velocity into altitude. For some airport and aircraft combinations, a zoom climb may be the only way out.

This is a recommendation to think seriously about the necessity of the flight or the wisdom of the plan if you have to factor into your departure plans for anything like a zoom climb.

It’s no fun being close to the ground, at a high pitch angle and higher AOA—only to have strong winds suddenly subside or, worse, reverse direction. And low-level stalls hurt the worst.

Meanwhile, anything that adds drag to an airplane will handicap its performance. A climbing turn, despite how necessary it may be under some circumstances, qualifies.

Planning Your Climb

Consider this scenario: 500 nm to go and the need to fly at 7500 feet msl after taking off from sea level. What’s the most efficient way to get to your cruising altitude?

My total time en route is about 3.4 hours, meaning I can arrive about seven minutes earlier and burn three to four fewer gallons of fuel than the other two options.

Once clear of obstacles and with enough air underneath to lengthen the time available for emergencies, climbing at a faster airspeed pays off for me. It will for you, too.

This article originally appeared in the April 2013 issue of Aviation Safety magazine.

For more great content like this, subscribe to Aviation Safety .

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What is cruse climb techniques?

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COMMENTS

What Is Cruise Climb Speed, And When Should You Use It?
Cruise climb helps you in three ways. First, increased airflow keeps your engine cooler in the climb. That's especially important for high-performance piston aircraft. Second, cruise climb gets you to your destination faster. You do lose some climb performance, but in most aircraft, it's an acceptable (and sometimes almost imperceivable) loss ...
Cruise Climb
Cruise climb is the most fuel efficient cruising technique. It allows the aircraft to constantly operate at its optimal performance. As fuel is burnt, the aircraft gradually becomes lighter. Therefore, less lift is required to balance the weight. This means that either speed will increase, or altitude will increase, or thrust will be reduced.
Cruise (aeronautics)
Cruise (aeronautics) Cruise is the phase of aircraft flight that starts when the aircraft levels off after a climb, until it begins to descend for landing. [1] Cruising usually comprises the majority of a flight, and may include small changes in heading (direction of flight), airspeed, and altitude .
How Do Pilots Decide Their Cruise Altitude?
Step climbs or cruise climbs is a climbing technique whereby pilots initially remain at a higher or a lower altitude than the optimum altitude. As discussed earlier, as an aircraft's weight decreases the drag reduces which increases the optimum altitude. In a long-range flight, the fuel burn results in large changes in weight which can keep ...
How To Use An IFR Cruise Clearance
The term "cruise" can be used by ATC to assign an IFR aircraft a block of airspace. It will sound something like this: "N216BD Cruise 8,000'." When ATC issues this clearance, the block of airspace between the minimum IFR altitude to the altitude in your clearance is yours to use. You can climb, descend, and level off at any intermediate ...
Climb Considerations
A cruise climb is one conducted at an airspeed higher than the best-rate or best-angle climb speeds and produces a lower climb-rate number used to trade off gain for cross-country progress. Cruise climbs not only speed you more quickly toward your destination, they also save fuel, help the engine run cooler and improve the view from most ...
Climb Performance
Climb performance is a measure of excess thrust, which generally increases lift to overcome other forces, such as weight and drag. This is true for most aircraft, although some high-performance aircraft can function like rockets for a limited time, utilizing thrust to lift away from the earth vertically, with no lift required.
Climbing and descending
Practise the climb and descent as required, so that the student is comfortable with the entry, maintenance, and exit, and coordinates rudder with power changes. On the way back to the aerodrome, demonstrate the cruise descent, including the selection of power and rate of descent appropriate for the conditions.
Cruise Climb
A climb technique employed by aircraft, usually at a constant power setting, resulting in an increase of altitude as the aircraft weight decreases. Source: Pilot Contoller Glossary (PCG) Previous: Cruise clearance. Next: Cruising Altitude.
What is the difference between Cruise and Service ceilings?
Cruise ceiling is the maximum altitude at cruise speed. Cruise speed is one of the design speeds as defined by FAR Part 25, §25.335 and is determined by the manufacturer. Also, the remaining climb speed at cruise ceiling might differ and is defined by the manufacturer if a cruise ceiling is given at all.
Calculating Cruise Climb Speed
But what if your POH doesn't list a cruise climb airspeed? In this case, there's a rule of thumb you can use to calculate an approximate value for Vcc. It's easy too. Simply subtract Vx from Vy ...
Everything about V Speeds Explained
Best climb gradient speed (i.e., best altitude increase per mile with the most critical engine inop). ... The completed aircraft may actually cruise slower or faster than VC. It is the highest ...
5 Things To Consider When You're Picking A Cruise Altitude
For most aircraft, your time-to-climb is pretty linear, but if you're flying a normally aspirated airplane above 10,000 feet MSL, your climb rate can start to tail off significantly. And on top of that, you're burning extra fuel, and flying a slow indicated airspeed, all the way to your cruise altitude.
general aviation
Generally when GA pilots talk about climb performance we speak of two different airspeed values:. Best Rate of Climb speed (V y) gets you the most altitude per unit time (feet per minute). When you want to get to cruise altitude quickly for maximum efficiency you'll aim for the best rate of climb so you spend the least time at lower, less efficient altitudes.
cruise-climb
cruise - climb (third-person singular simple present cruise-climbs, present participle cruise-climbing, simple past and past participle cruise-climbed) ( aviation,usually intransitive,of an aircraft) To slowly but continuously climb during cruise flight as the aircraft's weight decreases due to fuel burnoff (done because flight at higher ...
Cruise-climb in glider with electric motor?
"Cruise climb" does have a definition regarding a cruising aircraft rising to a higher altitude as it loses weight from fuel consumption. This relates more towards long range aircraft such as airliners. A second application of "cruise climb", is one of climbing at an airspeed greater than Vy.
V speeds
A single-engined Cessna 150L's airspeed indicator indicating its V-speeds in knots. In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft. These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft designers and manufacturers during flight testing for aircraft type-certification.Using them is considered a best practice to maximize ...
Mastering Cruise Descents
Let s fire up the Wayback machine and set it for high school physics class. As an aircraft climbs, it burns fuel (and by extension, money) to provide kinetic energy. That energy is used for climb performance and airspeed (countering that demon drag in the process). Once the aircraft is tucked away at a cruise altitude, some of that formerly-kinetic energy is available as potential energy due ...
Climb Considerations
A cruise climb is one conducted at an airspeed higher than the best-rate or best-angle climb speeds and produces a lower climb-rate number used to trade off gain for cross-country progress. Cruise climbs not only speed you more quickly toward your destination, they also save fuel, help the engine run cooler and improve the view from most ...
Technique: Constant-airspeed climbs
Use constant-airspeed climbs for a cruise climb or on climbout to maintain best rate of climb (VY) or best angle of climb (VX) speeds. Constant-rate climbs—where you climb at 500 fpm as you approach your assigned altitude, for instance—require a similar technique, but the vertical speed indicator becomes the primary reference for pitch once ...
Step climb
By climbing gradually throughout the cruise phase of a flight, pilots can make the most economical use of their fuel. Originally, a simple cruise climb was used by pilots. This amounted to a simple, continuous, very gradual climb from an initial cruise altitude to a final cruise altitude, and made the most efficient use of fuel.
What is the difference between "cruise" and "en-route"?
Cruise: Any level flight segment after arrival at initial cruise altitude until the start of descent to the destination. Change of Cruise Level: Any climb or descent during cruise after the initial climb to cruise, but before descent to the destination. Descent: IFR: Descent from cruise to either Initial Approach Fix (IAF) or VFR pattern entry.
What is cruse climb techniques? [Archive]
The definition of cruse climb technique is "A climb technique employed by aircraft, usually at a constant power setting, resulting in an increase of altitude as the aircraft weight decreases." ... Cruise climb or (cruse!!! climb) from an ATC point of view in NZ means go forward fast at the cost of climbing. Generally used from an ATC point to ...

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Simple Flying

The service ceiling and the absolute ceiling

The optimum altitude

Step climbs

Climb Considerations

RELATED ARTICLES MORE FROM AUTHOR

Climb Performance

Power vs. Thrust:

Propulsion vs. Drag:

Best Angle vs. Best Rate of Climb:

Best Angle-of-Climb:

Best Rate-of-Climb:

Factors Impacting Climb Performance:

Temperature:

Air Density:

Aircraft Condition:

Aircraft Engine Age:

Determining Rate-of-Climb Requirements:

Conclusion:

References:

Climbing and descending

Principles of flight

The forces acting on the aeroplane in a climb

Climb performance

Aeroplane management

Carburettor heat

Temperature and pressure gauges

Human factors

Air exercise

Airborne sequence

The exercise

After flight

Cruise Climb

Everything about V Speeds Explained

VMCA or VMC

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5 Things To Consider When You're Picking A Cruise Altitude

1) Am I Going To Hit Something?

2) Can My Plane Actually Get There?

3) What Kind Of Airspace Do I Need To Deal With?

4) What About The Clouds?

5) Are My Passengers Going To Hate Me?

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cruise-climb

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